View source for Faunal Resources In India: Zoological Nomenclature

=Zoological Nomenclature=
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This is an extract from

'''FAUNAL DIVERSITY IN INDIA ''' 

Edited by 

J. R. B. Alfred 

A. K. Das 

A. K. Sanyal.

* 

ENVIS Centre,

Zoological Survey of India, 

Calcutta.

1998

('' J. R. B. Alfred was ''

''Director, Zoological Survey of India'')<br/>
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[[Category:India|Z]]
[[Category:Fauna|Z]]

The earth is estimated to harbour as many as 30 million kinds (species) of animals of which about 1.75 million have been described and classified by Zoologists (IUCN, 2004). New species are described at a rate of about 5000 per year. The scentific process of identifying, describing, classifying and naming is zoological taxonomy, which is an essential component of zoological SYSTEMATICS that deals with the study of the diversity, origin and relationship of animals. With about 28.25 million species of animals yet to be described and known, our gap in taxonomic knowledge really matters particularly in view of the global environmental changes and degradation that have been going on for the past 40 years or so. The natural habitats and ecosystems are being reduced, replaced or modified to such an extent that the remaining areas can no longer support their former biological diversity. This means a global loss of genetic diversity including the large-scale extinction of species, a great majority of which even before we get a chance to know. It is now well realized that any significant reduction in the biodiversity has its consequences on human population ranging from the loss of potential disease -curing drug to population explosion of pests when predators are reduced or lost. We have sufficient evidence by now to illustrate that if the extinction rate increases, changes to the earth's environments can be very significant enough to be harmful to human populations. The primary step in evaluating the consequences of the changes that man is bringing about in his environment is to document the nature of such changes which include changes in the diversity, distribution and composition of animal and plant communities. Identifying and compiling as complete an inventory as possible of the world's animal and plant species is the basic work involved in the process of such documentation. Thus, taxonomy is not only man's natural pursuit for knowledge but also an essential science to understand many processes in evolutionary biology, more importanlly; it is also an applied science basic to the human welfare. Taxonomy is the basis for alI meaningful research in biology and it is absolutely essential 
to know the name of an organism before undertaking any kind of research on it. It has great relevance in various areas of research including biodiversity, conservation, ecology, agriculture, fisheries, medicine etc. In classification and naming, a taxonomist employs a variety of methodologies. However, in alI these methodologies, the basic tools of the taxonomist's job are attributes of the organism that he studies such as its structural features, external and internal morphology etc. 
Names are a means of reference to all living and non living things while nomenclature (nomen• name, ealore •to calI) refers to alIocation of names to alI taxa. Common names of animals vary from place to place; however, the scientific names are uniform and universal. Therefore, the scientific names should be unambiguous and stable since they serve as the only means of reference thereby avoiding the need of continuous usage of descriptive 
phrases. For uniformity and consistency, the scientific names are binomial, i.e., having a generic and specific name. For those forms which have varieties and forms, the names are trinomial Le., generic name, specific name, and name of variety or form. 
Names are given to animals according to a set of rules or codes. It was Linnaeus who first proposed a set of rules for generic names of plants in his Critica Botanica (1737) and Fundamenta Botaneia (1736). This was improved upon by Fabricius (1778) in his Pftilosophica Entomologica, for naming insects. The first set of rules for nomenclature of plants was drafted by A. De Condolle and passed by the International Botanical Congress at Paris in 1867. The British Association for the Advancement of Science, under the leadership of H.E. Strickland in June, 1843 adopted the "Stricklandian code" for animal nomenclature. Its official title was "Series of Propositions for Rendering the Nomenclature of Zoology, Uniform and Permanent" This Stricklandian code was universally accepted, and formed the basis for other codes approved subsequently. However, Dall's code framed by the 
W.H. Dall (1877) at American Association for the Advancement of Science; French code (in 1881), Douville code (1881) for the nomenclature of fossils; American Ornithologist's Union code (1885); German code (1893), etc. instead of solVing problems, created more confusion in animal taxonomy. 

During the last hundred years the application and practice of the rules necessitated many clarifications, recommendations, explanatory notes and even changes as and when needed. The first one in this direction was the presentation of a set of rules at International Congress of Zoology held in Paris in 1889, which was accepted later in 1892 at Moscow, during the Second Congress. The Third International Congress held at Leiden in 1895 disapproved these rules and appointed a Commission to provide a uniform system of zoological nomenclature. Finally, on 11th January 1961, a revised draft prepared was approved by the Commission and voted as "International Code of Zoological Nomenclature" Even this code was subjected to minor revisions as a result of amendments made by the XVI International Congress of Zoology, held in Washington in 1963. The XVII International Congress of Zoology held at Monaco (1972) took decisions to amend the 1961 code. This code was further subjected to revisions and alterations by way of amendments and the entire responsibility of framing the codes was shifted to the International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS). The XVIII General Assembly of IUBS held at Norway in 1973, appointed a commission to revise the Code and the draft paper was circulated incorporating the amendments. The final text of the third edition, with the authority of IUBS was approved in 1983. The editorial committee of the 4th edition, met in Vicenza (Italy) in June 1996, considered every article of the draft and in the meeting of ICZN held on August 1996 at Budapest, Hungary approved it. The 4th edition came into effect in January 1999. 
==Principles== 
The code, "International Code of Zoological Nomenclature," (ICZN) has certain principles, rules and recommendations adopted by the International Congress of Zoology, since 

1973. The general principles of nomenclature have the following features; 
•	Promotes maximum stability and universality in the scientific names of animals 
•	Ensures that each name is unique, distinct, and unambiguous 
•	Zoological nomenclarnre is independent of botanical nomenclature 
•	The application of names of taxonomic groups is determined by means of nomenclature types 
•	The nomenclature of taxonomic group is based on the principles of priority 
•	Each taxonomic group with a particular circumscription, position and rank can bear only one correct scientific name, in accordance with the rules. 
•	Precision and consistency in the use of terms are essential to a code 
•	Scientific names of taxonomic groups are treated as Latin regardless of their derivation 
•	The Code provides guidance for zoologists while establishing new names and rules to determine whether any name, previously proposed, is available and with what priority, whether the name requires amendment for its correct use etc. 
•	The Code also provides for its interpretation and administration, when necessary, by prescribing the establishment and operation of the international commission on zoological nomenclature and the conditions under which the code may be amended 
•	Problems in nomenclature are decided through the application of the code, and never by reference to precedent. 
•	The code refrains from infringing upon taxonomic judgement, which must not be made subject to regulation or restraint 

==The Rules Of Nomenclature== 
The ntles provide detailed provisions of the system, and are laid down in 88 articles of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and by the Division of Zoology of the International Union of Biological Sciences. Names contrary to rules are considered illegitimate and cannot be maintained. The articles are discussed in the following paragraphs. 
Article 1. relates to the definition and scope-Zoological Nomenclarnre is the system of scientific names applied to taxonomic units of animals known to occur in nature, whether extinct or extant. The Code regulates the names of the taxa in the family, genus and species. The article also provides provisions of exclusions, independence and collective groups and ichnotaxa. 
Article 2. relates to the eligibility of certain names in zoological nomenclature. 

Article 3. relates to the starting point and accordingly, January 1, 1758 is arbitarily fixed in the code as the date of starting point of zoological nomenclature. Two works are deemed to have been published on that date viz., Linnaeus's Systl!1lUl Naturae, (10th edition) and Cierck's Arnnei Svecici. 
Article 4. relates to the names of taxa of ranks above the species. The scientific names of a taxon of higher rank than that of a species is always Uninominal. Similarly, the scientific name of subgenus, although uninominal, must not be used as the first name in binomen or trinomen. 

Article 5. relates to the names of taxa of ranks in the species group (principles of binominal nomenclature). The scientific name of a species, and not of a taxon of any other rank, is a combination of two names (binomen), the first being the generic name and the second, the specific name. The scientific name of a sub species is a combination of three names (trinomen). 
Article 6. relates to interpc.lated names i.e., names of subgenera, names of aggregates of species or subspecies. 
Article 7. relates to application of publication of new names or nomenclatural act likely to affect nomenclature. 
Article 8. relates to the Publication. A work is regarded as published, if it meets the following criteria a) Should be published in a scientific record b) Easily accessible c) Produced in editions containing simultaneously obtainable copies. The article also gives guidelines for the work published prior to 1986, published after 1985 and the responsibilities of the authors. 
Article 9. relates to what does not constitute a publication. Under this code the following are not considered as Publications : 

(I) 	After 1930 hand written works reproduced by meChanical or graphic processess 

(2) 	Photographs, photocopies, microfilms, proof sheets, computer printouts, acoustic recordings 

(3) 	Those distributed to only colleagues or students and 

(4) 	Labels' of a specimen, those mentioned at a meeting or deposit of a document or thesis in a library or other archives. 

(5) 	Recently on December, 1999, the ICZN felt that scientific communication should not be published in aquarium literature which is difficult to obtain, and which is sometimes in a local language difficult to understand for the majority of interested researchers. 

Article 10. relates to the general provisions. A name or nomenclatural act is available, and takes authorship and date only or, when it has satisfied the provisions of the article 

10-20. If the nomenclatural act is interrupted and continued at a later date, nomenclatural act becomes available only when it satisfies all relavent provisions. A name once available remains so irrespective of its invalidity as a junior synonym, a junior homonym, unjust emendation or unjustified replac,ement of name. 
Article 11. relates to the requirements such as publication and date, language (Latinized word or uses the Latin alphabet), application of binominal nomenclature, valid name, a junior synonym, family -group names, genus -group names, species group names etc. 
Article 12. relates to the names that are published before 1931. 
Article 13. relates to the names that are published after 1930. 
Article 14. relates to the anonymous publications. 
, 
Article 15. relates to the conditional proposals of scientific name. 
Article 16. relates to the names proposed with the terms "variety" and "form" after 1960 as infrasubspecific and excluded from the zoological nomenclature; however, such proposal before 1961 does not prevent availability. 
Article 17. relates to the availability of a name that is not affected, if it is found that the original description relates to more than one taxon or to an animal later found to be a hybrid or proposed for parts of animals. The name is also not affected, for an animal of one sex, or in one stage in the life history, or in one of several dissimilar generations, or one form of polymorphic species.
 
Article 18. relates to the inappropriate and tautonymous names Le. usage of names such as polydon, apus, albus, sinensis, specific names such as bison, in Bison bison, apus in Apus apus that are not to be rejected. 
Article 19. relates to the status of emendations, incorrect spellings and mandatory changes. In the meaning of the Code or an emendation whether justified or unjustified is an available name, provided that it meets the other requirements for availability, but an incorrect spelling, whether original or subsequent, is not. 

Article 20. relates to the name applied only to the fossils and formed by adding -ites, -ytes, or ithes to the stem of an available genus-group name, but without clear evidence of proposal of a new genus• group taxon. Such an available genus-group name is used for the purpose of the Principles of Homonomy but not for the Principles of Priority, or for the formation of a family group name. 
Article 21. relates to the determination of date to be adopted in a publication. The effective date of publication is the date on which the author describes in the form of a printed material and the matter is made available to the public through a journal or its distribution to the libraries. 
Article 22. relates to the citation of the date of publication and that a name is optional, if cited, to be followed by the name of the author. 
 
Article 23. relates to the Principle of Priority. The valid name of taxon is the oldest available name applied to it, provided that the name is not invalidated by any provision of the Code or by any ruling of the commission. The correct name of the taxon is the earliest validly published name of the taxon. The validity of the taxon is decided by the rule of priority, i.e., the valid name of the taxon is the oldest available name with certain exceptions such as the name conserved by the commission or the nomen oblitllm ( forgotten name or the limitations associated with the change of rank). 
==New Names== 
New names become necessary for the folloWing : i. To a new taxa (when a new taxonomic group such as family, genus or a species is founded) ii. When it is realised that an existing name of the animal is in contravention of the rules and is illegitimate and a new name becomes necessary iii. After careful revisionary studies of the species, when it is felt that the species should be removed from one genus to another, a new name becomes a necessity iv. When a taxon is referred at different times by different names, and it is difficult to decide with certainity as to which name should really be applied to this taxon or a name given to a taxon haVing ambiguity about its legitamacy and it's application. To end this confusion a new name is given. 
A zoologist before publishing new names should observe the following principles which form the Code of Ethics, which is included in the form of Appendix -A of the code: 

1. 	A zoologist should not himself establish a new taxon if he has reasons to believe that another zoologist has already recognised the same taxon and is in the point of establishing it. 
2. 	A zoologist should not publish a new replacement name for a junior homonym during the lifetime of its author without informing him giving a reasonable time. 
3. 	A zoologist should not propose a name that, to his knowledge, gives offence on any grounds. 
4. 	A new genus or species name should be short and euphonious in latin. 
5. 	A word already in use above the family level should not be used a new genus or species group name. 
6. 	A zoologist should not publish a new species-group name identical with one already in use in a closely related genus or that differs from such a name only in its termination or small differences in spelling. 
7. 	A zoologist should not base a new species -group name on personal or geographical name derived from the same words. 
8. 	The word typllS and typiclIs should not be used as new names. 
9. 	In forming a compound name, a zoologist should not use components of which one is greek and the other in Intin. 
10. 	The prefix sub-, pseudo-and the suffix -ides and -aides should be used only with the Greek or Latin nouns. 
11. 	The use of personal names in the formation of compound genus-group names is objectionable. 
12. 	Preference should be given to the usage of genetive singular case ending -i in preference to the termination of -ii. (smithi instead of smithii ). 
RAMAKRISHNA and ALFRED: Zoological NOn/me/atllr/' 
Article 24. relates to the principles of the first revisor. If two or more different or identical names or nomenclatural acts are published on the same date, in the same or different works, by same or different authors based on same or different types and when they are subsequently considered to be synonyms or homonyms, the relative precedence is determined by the first revisor. The article also relates to the original spellings i.e., the spelling chosen by the first revisor as the correct original spelling. 
Article 25. relates to the formation and treatment of names. A scientific name must be formed in accordance with the relavent provisions of the article -11 and articles 26-34. 
Article 26. relates to the assumption of greek or latin for treatment of names. 
Article 27. relates to the diacritic or other marks (use of apostrophe or hypehn is regulated by article 31(d).). 
Article 28 relates to the initial letters -family or genus -group name must be printed with a capital letter and a species -group name with a lower case -initial letter, regardless of how they were originally written. 
Article 29. relates to the formation of family -group names. The Zoological Code stipulates standardised endings for the names of the superfamily (-oidea), family (-ida!'), subfamily (-inae), tribe (-ini and rarely subtribe (-ina). The names of the species is always binomial (binominal nomenclature) and those of subspecies are trinomial. The presence of subgenus does not affect the status of nomenclature. 

Article 30. relates to the gender of genus -group names. i.e., ending in Greek or Latin words take the gender given for that word in the standard Greek or Latin dictionaries unless the commission rules othewise. A genus-group name that reproduces exactly a noun in modem Indo-European language having genders takes the gender of that noun. Gender of names that are not Greek, Latin or modem Ino-European, takes the gender expressly attributed by its author. If no gender was attributed, the name is to be treated as masculine. 

Article 31. relates to the species -group names. If species -group name is a noun in the genitive case formed directly from a modem personal name or from Latin, it is to be formed in accordance with the rules of the Latin grammer or formed by adding to the stern of that name -i, if the personal name is that of a man, -arum if of men or of man and woman(women) together, ae if of a woman, and -arllm if of women (under this provision the names of podai from Poda, victori from Victor and cllveri from Cuvier). 
Faunal Resour~ in India 
Article 32. relates to the original spelling. In terms of the Code, the original spelling of a name is the spelling used in the work in which the name is established. Correct original spelling is to be preserved unaltered. An original spelling is an "incorrect original spelling" if it contravenes the provision of the articles 27-31 or if an inadvertent error has crept in (lapses calami ). Printer's error is not to be considered inadvertent. Correction of incorrect original spellings is to be made, if it has no separate availability in the origi~al form and can not in that form enter into homonomy or to be used as a replacement name. 
Article 33. relates to the subsequent spellings. Any intentional change of the original spelling of a name other than the mandatory change is an emendation. Justified emendation is the correction made in accordance with the provision of the article 32. Any other emendation is an "unjustified emendation"; the name thus emended has status in nomenclature with its own date and author, and is a junior objective synonym of the name in its original form. 
Article 34. relates to the mandatory changes in the spelling consequent upon changes in rank or combination. The suffix of a family -group name must be changed when the taxon bearing the name is raised or lowered in rank. 
Article 35. relates to the family group, which includes all taxa at the rank of superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe and any other rank below superfamily and above genus. 

Article 36. relates to the principles of coordination. A name established for a taxon at any rank in the family -group is deemed to be simultaneously established with the same author and date for the taxa based on the same name bearing type-genus at other ranks in the family group, with appropriate mandatory change of suffix. Further, when a nominal taxon is raised or lowered in rank in the family -group, its type genus remains same. 
Article 37. relates to the nominotypical taxa or subordinate taxa. When a family ¬group taxon is subdivided, the subordinate taxon that contains the type genus of the superior taxon bears the same name, except for suffix with the same author and date. 
Article 38 and 39 relates to the Homonymy (dealt with Articles-53 and 55) in family-group and type genus respectively. 
Article 40. relates to the synonomy of the type genus. When a generic name on which a valid family group name is based is rejected as a junior synonym, that family group name is not to be replaced, if this happens to be after 1960. If a family group name is replaced before 1961 because of generic synonomy, the replacement name (nom..n novum) has won general acceptance. 
Article 41. relates to the misidentified type genera and overlooked type fixation. If the stability and continuity of a family group is threatenned by the misidentification of a type species or by overlooked type fixation, the case is to be referred to the commission. 
Article 42. relates to the genus group which is next below the family group and next above the species group, includes genus and subgenus and the name is determined by the type species and in accordance with the provisions of Articles 10,11, and 25-33. 
RAMAKRISHNA and ALFRED: Zoological Nomenclntrlre 
Article 43 deals with the principles of coordination and the date corresponding to the establishment of species applies to the genus also. 

Article 44 deals with the nominotypical genus. 
Article 45. relates to the species group, which includes taxa at the rank of species and subspecies. The application of names, formation, treatment and infrasubspecific names are all in accordance with the provisions of various articles of the code. The zoological code does not recognise the names of the taxa of infrasubspecific rank i.e, a scientific name proposed expressly as the name of a "variety" or "form" after 1960 is excluded from zoological nomenclature (Article 1b (5); Article-16, but those designated before 1961, these are regarded as subspecific names (Article 45 g). 
Article 46. relates to the principles of coordianation. 
Article 47 deals with the nominotypical taxa. 
Article 48. relates to the transfer of species from one genus to another. 
Article 49 deals with the use of species -group names wrongly applied through misidentification or doubtful identification ("species inquirendn"). 

Article SO. relates to the authorship. The author of a name is the person who first publishes in a periodical or made available in the minutes of the meeting and if the identity of an author cannot be determined from the contents of the publication, then the author is deemed to be anonymous. Change in the rank of a taxon shall not affect the authorship (refer Article -24). 
Article 51. refers to the citation of name of author. The name of the author does not form part of the name of a taxon and its citation is optional, and if cited, follows the name of the taxon without intervening mark of punctuation. If the species name is combined with the generic name other than the original one, the name of the author of the species group name, if cited, is to be enclosed in the parenthesis. 

Article 52-60. refers to the principles of homonymy. Homonymy refers to the availability of two or more names having the same spelling denoting different nominal taxa in the genus -group (Article -56) or species -group (Article -57) either originally (primary homonym, Article -53) or subsequently (secondary homonym Article -59). International code of zoological nomenclature stipulates when two or more homonyms are found, the senior homonym is used while the junior homonym is excluded from use (Article -60). This may occur when identical names based on different types are used at the same rank, eg., subspecies in a species, species in a genus etc. Article -58 stipulates species -group names established for different nominal. taxa that differ in spelling only in any of the respects mentioned here, and which are of the same origin and meaning are deemed to be homonyms e.g., use of lie, oe or e; use of ei, i, or y; presence or absence of f before t; use of single or double consonants; use off for ph; presence or absence of i before suffix. 
 
 
==Type Concept== 
The Principles and Articles of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature provide that all taxonomic groups will be based on the nomen-clatural types. This is generally known as "Typification" This indicates that all names are permanently attached with some taxon or specimen designated as Type. For species, type is the specimen on which species (variety or form) was based and original1y described. The first name given to the species (variety or form) by the founding author is permanently attached. The type once designated cannnot be changed, not even by the original author except by the plenary powers of the Commission (Article -79), through the designation of a Neotype (Article -75). Neotypes are designated by an author, if no holotypes, tectotypes, syntypes or prior neotype is believed to exist (Article• 75). 

Concept of Type was different during Linnaen era, as he never designated any specimen as type (pre Linnean name). Further to this, he substituted. the old specimens by the new and better ones. Therefore, Linnean types were never regarded as reliable. Names of taxa above species viz. Subgenus, genus, tribe, family are based on the name of that immediate lower taxon on which that group was originally based. The International Congress of Zoology held in Boston in 1947 for the first time provided provisions for designating types of the genera but types of the species even later. The Article -72b in its various subsections ( i-vii) on "Type Series" now defines the true status of the type on modem lines. 
==Explanation Of Type== 
When a species is described, the author of the new species has before him one or more specimens having characters which are distinctive enough to his satisfaction and which he considers necessary to segregate from the existing taxa and make into new species. This material comprising of one or more specimens which the author has studied and on which the author decides to name a species is the type material. This comprise of animals collected by one or more collectors and on one or more occassions. One of these is labelled as holotype or the Primary Type or Proterotype (Article -73). 

According to the Rules of Nomenclature, it is obligatory that the Holotype must be definitely indicated and the publication of new taxon without clear indication of Holotype is invalid. Earlier, in several cases the designation of type material in the original descriptions mention a number of specimens studied by the founding author. Either none of these specimens bear the annotation as Type or several of them are seen labelled Types. In such cases, according to the code, all these specimens have the status of syntypes, and it is for the specialist later to choose one of them to serve as the Type, which is called Lectotype (Article -74). Valid designation of a lectotype fixes the status of the specimen, no later designation of a lectotype has any validity. The place of origin of a Lectotype (Article -72 h) becomes the type locality of the nominal species and the valid designation of a lectotype permanently deprives all specimens that were formerly syntypes of that nominal taxon, those specimens then becomes paralectotypes. Further, if it is found that the specimen designated "Lectotype" was not a Syntype, it loses is status of lectotype. If in original descriptions, anyone of the specimen is cited as Type and even if the word Holotype is missing, it is to be presumed to be Holotype. A name which is published according to the requirement of the Articles 8 -10 of the Code is known as the"Available name" or valid name" or "Legitamate name" 
While designating the Holotype, the following relavent data known to the author are recommeded for incorporation (Article -73 c) viz., size, locality, name in full, other data such as altih.ide, meters below sea level for aquatic material, geological age in case of fosssil taxon, sex, developmental stage, name of the collector, collection in which it is situated, collection number and host species in case of a parasite. 
==Different Kinds Of Types== 
Blackwelder (1967) grouped such names of the types into following categories. 

(I) 	Primary types (single nomenclatural types e.g. Ho)otype, Lectotype, Neotype) 

(2) 	Secondary types (the specimen from which the primary type must be selected eg., Syntypesor Paralectotypes) 

(3) 	Tertiary types (other specimens originally set aside as of special taxonomic interest to supplement the primary types eg., Paratype and Allotype) 

(4) 	Topotype (specimens identified as of special origin) 

(5) 	Metatype, Homo or Homeotypes (specimens identified as to time or person of identification) 

(6) 	Plesiotype, Hypotypes (specimens identified for special treatment or use) 

(7) 	Plastotypes (replicas of type specimens) 

The following kinds of usage is employed in taxonmy, the explanations of which are given below : 
Holotype : It is that single specimen with which the name of the taxon is attached. The single specimen selected by the author of a species as its type, or the only specimen known at the time of description. A holotype based on a single specimen, is known as the Monotype. 

Allotype: This is the specimen of the opposite sex of the type. This can be designated at the time of typification or subsequently. An Allotype (opposite sex of the type) described after publication of the original description is known as Neoallotype. 
Isotype or Cotype : The duplicate of the type specimen. In case of plants, these are the fragments from the same plant from which the holotype was made. The term Cotype is now not used. However,Cotypes are anyoneofallspecimenspresent before thedescriber at the time when description is drawn from a syntype or paratype. 

Paratype : The specimen other than the holotype (and the isotypes in case of plants) studied by the author at the time of the description of the taxon. These specimens bear numbers different from the holotype and can even be from different localities and by different collectors, but they must have been studied by the author of the taxon prior to the founding of the new taxon. 
Syntype : These are those specimens which were studied by the founding author and form the basis of the new taxon, but when the author did not designate any single specimen as holotype. A duplicate type of a syntype, not cited in the original description of the name is known as Isosyntype. 

Lectotype: It is type chosen to'serve as holotype, when either an earlier designated holotype was lost or destroyed or Holotype was never designated. In such cases a specimen is chosen from the paratype or syntype by a specialist to serve as the type (it may be noted that, it is not a Holotype in any sense but a specimen is chosen to serve as Holotype). It is also defined as one of the series of syntypes which, subsequent to the publication of the original description, is selected and designated through publication to serve as "The Type" 

Neotype : The specimen selected and designated from the other specimens as type, when the holotype, paratype or syntypes are lost or destroyed. A Neotype for a nominal species -group taxon should be chosen from any surviving paratypes or paralectotypes, unless there are compelling reasons to the contrary, such as poor condition of the specimen or the probable mixture of taxa (Article -75a). 
Topotype : When no original type material is available and the specimen collected from the original type locality is chosen to serve as type. Earlier the term Geotype was used to indicate a specimen from the type locality. The word Geotype is now not in usage. 
Homeotype or Homotype : A specimen compared with the type by a person other than the describer and determined by him as conspecific with the type. 

Morphotype : A selected specimen of the second or later form of a dimorphic or polymorphic species; its use is permitted only by international Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria and not by Zoological Code.
 
Genotype: The species which is designated the type species of a genus, upon which it is based. However, recommendations of 1985 code (67 a) does not allow its use in referring to the type of a genus as the term creates confusion in its use in genetics. 
Autotype : Any specimen identified by the describer as an illustration of his species and compared with the type. 
Typotype : The type of type Le., if the type of name, studied by an author, is a description or an illustration previously published by an earlier author, then the specimen on which the earlier author's description or illustration was based, and which as such, the later author did not study, is the typotype of the later author's name. 
Generally the terms like holotype, paratype, syntype, lectotype, paralectotype and neotype are used in Zoological Nomenclatu:". Apart from the above, the following terms are also used in taxonomy. These are not recognised; however, it serve a usehil purpose in the identification of the type specimen. 

Chirotype : A type specimen upon which a mansucript name is based. 
Genoholotype : The species on which a genus is founded whether lmique or one of a series, specifically named as generiotype by the author. The term is not in usage. 

Genolectotype : A species of a series selected as the type of the genus in which the describer of the genus placed it subsequently to the description. The term is not in usage.
 
Geotype : A specimen from the type locality. 
Haplotype: A generic type by a single reference. 
Icotype : A typical specimen which serves the purpose of identification but has not been used in literature. 
Ideotype : A specimen named by the author after comparison with the type, but not belonging to the type locality. 
Pseudotype : A type species of the genus by erroneous description. 
Articles 76-82 relates to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature to International Congress of Zoology or their successors in authority. Accordingly, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, a permanent body derives its power and its constitution from the International Congress of Zoology. The Commission exercises the interpretation of the code, amendments to the code (Article -77), status of declarations, opinions and directives and of names and works in the official lists and indexes (Article -78), the plenary powers in Article -79, status of the case, exemption, constitution and bylaws in the Article -80-82, respectively. 

Articles 83 to 88 regulates the governing of the code. The title of the rules is known as International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the third edition comes into effect from the date of publication viz. February, 1985, which supersedes all previous editions. The official language of this Code is French and English and no name or act published before 1758 enters zoological nomenclature and the zoological work published after 1757 are governed by the provisions of this Code. The meaning attributed in the glossary to a word or expression is to be taken as its meaning for the purpose of the Code. Lastly, Article -88 stipulates that the code can be amended only by the congress acting on the recommendations of the commissions. 
FOllnal ~1In.ys in India 
General recommendations adopted by the XX General Assembly of the International Union of Biological Sciences 
I. Comparisons should be included while describing a new taxon. 

2. The scientific name for taxa of the genus and species should be different from the printing style used in the main text, i.e., italics are used. 

3. Vowels should not be linked while printing and should be separate (eg. at> and oe) 

4. When a taxa described is not in English, French, German, or Latin, it should be accompanied by the translation in anyone of the language. 

5. The author should state the class, order and the family clearly. 

6. A new name should be followed immediately by an appropriate statement in abbrevated form such as "gm. n" or "sp. n" etc. 

7. The new name of the taxa or the author's name should be cited in full; abbreviations should not be used. 

8. 	When a nominal species has been later divided on taxonomic grounds, the name of the author who restricted the taxonomic species may be cited with a suitable notation, after the name of the original author. 

9. Full bibliographic reference should be given, while citing the name of a genus or its lower rank or while establishing a replacement name in a taxonomic work. 

10. Bibliographic reference and full i11ustration should be given while describing a new taxon. 

II. All measurements should be in the metric system. 

12. The expression of "nomen novum" should be used only to denote a replacement name for a preoccupied name. 

13. The author of the new taxa should not use the same name in different publications without mentioning that the matter has already appeared elsewhere. 

14. The zoologist should not publish a name for the first time in an abstract, table of contents, introduction or key published in advance. 

15. In view of the paramount importace of the wider publicity, the author is recommended to take the earliest opportunity to send a copy to the Zoological Records. 

Recent Inclusions : The Fourth Edition of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature was published at the end of 1999, and guide zoologists in the handling of scientific names and types of animals. The Code still preserves taxonomic freedom and leaves it to systematists to be responsible for the stability in grass-root nomenclature. This 
was mainly because there were several instances of abuse of this freedom in North American and European aquarium press. Certain individuals, some apparently without systematic training, published new taxa that were incompetently described in the view of lCZN and apparently in at least one case, based on illegally collected and exported specimens. It was suggested that aquarisls attempting to publish systematic papers without the proper training in systematics and taxonomy are doing themselves, the scientific community, and the aquarium hobby a disservice and that systematic science usually suffers from this activity. A word of caution was also given to the global museums which are supposed to be resources for biodiversity research, and not facilitators of illegal trade in animals. The ICZN felt that scientific communication should not be published in aquarium literature which is difficult to obtain, and which is sometimes in a local language difficult to understand for the majority of interested researchers. Statements affecting nomenclature sometimes are published unintentionally in any text mentioning names, synonyms or types. With the wealth of aquarium literature now available, such statements are a potential source of nomenclatural problems because they may be discovered only after a long time and then upset established usage. This document can be down loaded at http://www.nrm.se/ve/pisces/policy.pdf. 
==Conclusion== 
The tremendous development in the last century on the nature and definition of species, speciation, application and practice of the rules of nomenclature, has necessitated the establishment of ethics and codes in taxonomic research. This also resulted in the formation of International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, as the guiding principle for the present day taxonomists all over the world. The entire subject of nomenclature can be divided into the following types viz., nomenclatme type, the rule of priority, new names, legitamacy of the names, correctness of the names, retention and choice of the names, rejection of names as well as change of names.