Chakma - Revision history

Jyoti: /* Citizenship */

2017-09-24T05:15:25Z

‎Citizenship

Jyoti: /* Inernal structure */

2017-09-24T05:09:19Z

‎Inernal structure

Jyoti: /* Citizenship */

2017-09-19T23:25:56Z

‎Citizenship

Jyoti: /* Citizenship */

2017-09-19T23:24:42Z

‎Citizenship

Jyoti: /* Citizenship */

2017-09-19T23:23:47Z

‎Citizenship

Jyoti: /* Chakma */

2017-09-19T23:20:26Z

‎Chakma

Pdewan: /* Occupation */

2015-05-18T09:53:36Z

‎Occupation

Pdewan: /* Funeral */

2015-05-18T09:53:17Z

‎Funeral

Pdewan: /* Religion */

2015-05-18T09:52:56Z

‎Religion

Pdewan: /* Marriages */

2015-05-18T09:52:09Z

‎Marriages

@@ Line 85: / Line 85: @@
 The Census statistics of the Chakma tribe show an extraordinary fluctuation in their numbers, which I am wholly unable to account for. In 1872 there were 28,097 chakmas in the Chittagong will Tracts, while the Census of 1881 shows only eleven! No attempt is made to clear up this singular ViilkenoctncZel'ung in the text of the Census Report of 1881.
-==Citizenship==
+=Citizenship=
-===Granted Indian citizenship: 2017===
+==Granted Indian citizenship: 2017==
 [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chakma-and-hajong-refugees-indias-new-citizens/articleshow/60733409.cms  Chakma and Hajong refugees - India's new citizens, Sep 18, 2017: The Times of India]

← Older revision		Revision as of 05:09, 24 September 2017
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	Among the chakmas, as perhaps among the Greeks and Romans in the beginning of their history; the sept is the unit of the tribal organization for certain public purposes. Each sept is presided over by an hereditary dewan (among the Tungjainiyas called ahUn) , who represents the family of the founder. This officer collects the poll-tax, keeps a certain proportion himself, and pays the remainder with a yearly offering of first fruits to the Chief of the tribe. When a wild animal fit for food is killed, he has a right to a share in the carcass. He also decides the disputes, mostly matrimonial or more or less connected with women, which make up most of the litigation within the tribe, and divides the fines with the Chief. Where the sept is large and scattered, the deWcln has subordinate headmen (kllqja) to assist him. These are exempt from poll-tax and begari or compulsory labour, but must make to the dewin a yearly offering of one measure of rice, one bamboo vessel (c1tunga) of spirits, and a fowl.		Among the chakmas, as perhaps among the Greeks and Romans in the beginning of their history; the sept is the unit of the tribal organization for certain public purposes. Each sept is presided over by an hereditary dewan (among the Tungjainiyas called ahUn) , who represents the family of the founder. This officer collects the poll-tax, keeps a certain proportion himself, and pays the remainder with a yearly offering of first fruits to the Chief of the tribe. When a wild animal fit for food is killed, he has a right to a share in the carcass. He also decides the disputes, mostly matrimonial or more or less connected with women, which make up most of the litigation within the tribe, and divides the fines with the Chief. Where the sept is large and scattered, the deWcln has subordinate headmen (kllqja) to assist him. These are exempt from poll-tax and begari or compulsory labour, but must make to the dewin a yearly offering of one measure of rice, one bamboo vessel (c1tunga) of spirits, and a fowl.
		+
		+	==Population==
		+	'''See graphic''': ''Chakma population in India in 2011, state-wise''
		+
		+	[[File: Chakma population in India in 2011, state-wise.jpg\| Chakma population in India in 2011, state-wise ; [http://epaperbeta.timesofindia.com/Gallery.aspx?id=23_09_2017_013_028_006&type=P&artUrl=That-Chakmas-number-1-lakh-is-Goebbels-speak-23092017013028&eid=31808 The Times of India], September 23, 2017\|frame\|500px]]

	==Marriages==		==Marriages==

@@ Line 84: / Line 84: @@
 [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chakma-and-hajong-refugees-indias-new-citizens/articleshow/60733409.cms  Chakma and Hajong refugees - India's new citizens, Sep 18, 2017: The Times of India]
-[http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/who-are-chakmas/article19682129.ece  Sep 14, 2017:The Hindu]
+[http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/who-are-chakmas/article19682129.ece  Sep 14, 2017: The Hindu]
 '''Who are Chakmas and Hajongs?'''

@@ Line 80: / Line 80: @@
 The Census statistics of the Chakma tribe show an extraordinary fluctuation in their numbers, which I am wholly unable to account for. In 1872 there were 28,097 chakmas in the Chittagong will Tracts, while the Census of 1881 shows only eleven! No attempt is made to clear up this singular ViilkenoctncZel'ung in the text of the Census Report of 1881.
-=Citizenship=
+==Citizenship==
 [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chakma-and-hajong-refugees-indias-new-citizens/articleshow/60733409.cms  Chakma and Hajong refugees - India's new citizens, Sep 18, 2017: The Times of India]

@@ Line 82: / Line 82: @@
 =Citizenship=
 [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chakma-and-hajong-refugees-indias-new-citizens/articleshow/60733409.cms  Chakma and Hajong refugees - India's new citizens, Sep 18, 2017: The Times of India]
@@ Line 140: / Line 164: @@
 Sept 2017: Home ministry announces citizenship to be given
 Though cleared for citizenship now, they can't own land in Arunachal and will have to apply for Inner Line Permits

← Older revision		Revision as of 23:20, 19 September 2017
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	described below in the article Magh. In spite of the necessarily shifting character of their husbandry, they show remarkable attachment to the sites of their villages, and do not change these like most of the other tribes. Theil' bamboo houses, built upon high piles, are constructed with great oare. An excellent sketch of one of these is given by Dr. Riebeok in the book already referred to.		described below in the article Magh. In spite of the necessarily shifting character of their husbandry, they show remarkable attachment to the sites of their villages, and do not change these like most of the other tribes. Theil' bamboo houses, built upon high piles, are constructed with great oare. An excellent sketch of one of these is given by Dr. Riebeok in the book already referred to.
	The Census statistics of the Chakma tribe show an extraordinary fluctuation in their numbers, which I am wholly unable to account for. In 1872 there were 28,097 chakmas in the Chittagong will Tracts, while the Census of 1881 shows only eleven! No attempt is made to clear up this singular ViilkenoctncZel'ung in the text of the Census Report of 1881.		The Census statistics of the Chakma tribe show an extraordinary fluctuation in their numbers, which I am wholly unable to account for. In 1872 there were 28,097 chakmas in the Chittagong will Tracts, while the Census of 1881 shows only eleven! No attempt is made to clear up this singular ViilkenoctncZel'ung in the text of the Census Report of 1881.
		+
		+	=Citizenship=
		+	[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chakma-and-hajong-refugees-indias-new-citizens/articleshow/60733409.cms Chakma and Hajong refugees - India's new citizens, Sep 18, 2017: The Times of India]
		+
		+
		+	'''HIGHLIGHTS'''
		+
		+	The move to grant the Chakma and Hajong refugees citizenship is facing opposition in the refugees' main home state of Arunachal Pradesh, on claims that the move will change the demographics of the mostly tribal state. A look at the refugees and their struggle…
		+
		+	'''Origins'''
		+
		+	Chakmas and Hajongs came to India from the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan), having lost their homes and land to the Kaptai dam project (Karnaphuli river) mid-1960s. They also faced religious persecution
		+
		+	Religion: Chakmas are Buddhists, while Hajongs are Hindus
		+
		+	Language: Chakmas' is close to Bengali-Assamese; Hajongs speak a Tibeto-Burman tongue written in Assamese
		+	Where they settled
		+
		+	'''Who stayed on...'''
		+
		+	* An estimated 1 lakh Chakma and Hajong refugees are staying in India
		+
		+	* When they came in 1964, there were about 15,000 Chakmas and about 2,000 Hajongs
		+
		+	* By 2015, many of the initial group of refugees had died. Only about 5,000 were in the camps
		+
		+	* In 2010-11, a survey by MHA placed their in Arunachal's three districts at 53,730
		+
		+	* In 1987, a new group of 45,000 Chakmas crossed over to Tripura from Bangladesh
		+
		+	'''...having called India home'''
		+
		+	* To date, Chakmas observe a 'Chakma Black Day', condemning the award of Chittagong Hill Tracts to then east Pakistan in 1947
		+
		+	* Neither did they want to be part of Bangladesh when it was formed in 1971 and launched an armed struggle Shanti Bahini for autonomy
		+
		+	* Fighting the Bangla Army routinely saw Chakmas move into India, moving to Tripura
		+
		+	* In 1990s, Sheikh Hasina's govt struck a peace deal with the Chakmas, recognizing them as a Bangla tribe
		+
		+	* But the Chakmas did not return, fearing persecution
		+
		+	Can they vote?
		+
		+	In 2005, Election Commission issued guidelines to include Chakmas and Hajongs in Arunachal's electoral rolls. Names of over 1,000 Chakmas appear in Arunachal's electoral rolls
		+
		+	'''A timeline of their battle in court'''
		+
		+	Early 1990s: Committee of Citizenship Rights for the Chakmas of Arunachal Pradesh (CCRCAP) formed to fight for citizenship rights
		+
		+	Dec 1994: National Human Rights Commission asks Arunachal government and Centre to provide information about steps taken to protect Chakmas and Hajongs
		+
		+	1995: In face of a deadline set by local tribes for Chakmas, Hajongs to leave the state, NHRC moves SC seeking relief for the refugees
		+
		+	Nov 2, 1995: In interim order, SC directs state government to "ensure that the Chakmas situated in its territory are not ousted by any coercive action, not in accordance with law"
		+
		+	Jan 9, 1996: SC directs govt to expedite their citizenship applications
		+
		+	Sept 2015: SC gives deadline to the Centre to confer citizenship to these refugees within three months
		+
		+	Sept 2017: Home ministry announces citizenship to be given
		+
		+	Though cleared for citizenship now, they can't own land in Arunachal and will have to apply for Inner Line Permits

@@ Line 76: / Line 76: @@
 ==Occupation==
 Like the rest of the Hill Tribes, the Chakmas live by Jhum cultivation, which they carry on in the method
 described below in the article Magh. In spite of the necessarily shifting character of their husbandry, they show remarkable attachment to the sites of their villages, and do not change these like most of the other tribes. Theil' bamboo houses, built upon high piles, are constructed with great oare. An excellent sketch of one of these is given by Dr. Riebeok in the book already referred to.
 The Census statistics of the Chakma tribe show an extraordinary fluctuation in their numbers, which I am wholly unable to account for. In 1872 there were 28,097 chakmas in the Chittagong will Tracts, while the Census of 1881 shows only eleven! No attempt is made to clear up this singular ViilkenoctncZel'ung in the text of the Census Report of 1881.

@@ Line 72: / Line 72: @@
 ==Funeral==
 Chakmas burn their dead. The body of a man is burned with the bead to tho west on n. pyre composed of
 Five layers of woman on a wood ;that of  a women on a
 ==Occupation==

@@ Line 61: / Line 61: @@
 ==Religion==
 The Chakmis profess to be Buddhists, but during the last generation or so their practice in matters of Religion. religion has been noticeably coloured by contact with the gross Hinduism of Eastern Benga1. This tendency was encouraged by the example of Raja Dhann Baksh Khan and his wife Kilindi Rani, who observed the Hindu festivals, consulted Hindu astrologers, kept a Chittagong Brahman to supervise the daily worship of the goddess Kali, and persuaded themselves that they were lineal representatives of the Kshatriya caste. Some years ago, however, a celebrated Phoongyee came over from Arakan after the H.aja's death to endeavour to strengthen the cause of Buddhism and to take the
 Rani to task for her loadings towards idolatry. Ilia efforts aro said to have met with some success, and the Rani is believed to have formally proclaimed her adhesion to Buddhism.
 Lakhsmi is worshipped by the Tungjainya sub-tribe as the goddess of harvest in a small bamboo hut set apart for this purpose. She is represented by a rude block of stone with seven skeins of cotton bound seven times round it. The offerings are pigs and fowls, which are afterwards eaten by the votaries. Chakmas observe the same worship with a few differences of detail, which need not be noticed here.
-Vestiges of the primitive animism, which we may believe to have been the religion of the Chakmas before their conver ion to Buddhism, still survive in the festival called Shongbasa, when nats, or the spirits of wood and stream, are worshipped, either by the votary himself 01' by an exorcist (ojha or naichhura), who is called in to perform the necessary cercmonies. The demons of cholera, fever, and other diseases are propitiated in a river-bed or in the thick jungle, where spirits delight to dwell, with offerings of goats, fowls, ducks, pigeons, and flowers. The regular priests have nothing to do with this ritual, which has been condemned as unorthodox.
+Vestiges of the primitive animism, which we may believe to have been the religion of the Chakmas before their converion to Buddhism, still survive in the festival called Shongbasa, when nats, or the spirits of wood and stream, are worshipped, either by the votary himself 01' by an exorcist (ojha or naichhura), who is called in to perform the necessary cercmonies. The demons of cholera, fever, and other diseases are propitiated in a river-bed or in the thick jungle, where spirits delight to dwell, with offerings of goats, fowls, ducks, pigeons, and flowers. The regular priests have nothing to do with this ritual, which has been condemned as unorthodox.
 "At a Chakma village," says Major Lewin, "I was present when sacrifice was thus offered up by the headman. The occasion was a thank-offering for the recovery of his wife from child-birth. The offering consisted of a suckling pig and a fowl. the altar was of bamboo, decorated with young plantain shoots and leaves. On this raised platform were placed small cups containing rice, vegetables, and a spirit distilled from rice. Round the whole from the house-mother's distaff had been spun a long white thread, which encircled the altar, and then, carried into the house, was held at its two ends by tho good man's wife. The sacrifice commenced by a long invocation uttered by the husband, who stood opposite to his altar, and between each snatch of his charm he tapped the small platform with his hill knife and uttered a long wailing cry. This was for tho purpose of attracting the numerous wandering spirits who go up and down upon the earth and calling them to the feast. 'Whcn a sufficient number of these invisible guests were believed to be assembled, he cut the throats of the victims with his dao and poured a libation of blood upon the altar and over the thread. The flesh of the things sacrificed was afterwards cooked and eaten at the household meal, of which I was invited to partake."
-Of late years Bainigi Vaishnavas have taken to visiting the Ilill Tracts, and have made a few disciples among the Chakmas. The outward signs of conversion to Vaishnavism are wearing a necklaeo of tulsi beads (Ocymum sanctum), which is used to repeat the mantra or mystic formula of the sect. Abstinence from animal food and strong drink is also enjoined. I understand, however, that very few Chakmas have been found to submit to this degree of austerity.
+Of late years Bainigi Vaishnavas have taken to visiting the Ilill Tracts, and have made a few disciples among the Chakmas. The outward signs of conversion to Vaishnavism are wearing a necklace of tulsi beads (Ocymum sanctum), which is used to repeat the mantra or mystic formula of the sect. Abstinence from animal food and strong drink is also enjoined. I understand, however, that very few Chakmas have been found to submit to this degree of austerity.
 ==Funeral==
 Chakmas burn their dead. The body of a man is burned with the bead to tho west on n. pyre composed of

@@ Line 43: / Line 43: @@
 ==Marriages==
-I quote at length Major Lewin'sl graphic and sympathetic description of the marriage customs of the Chakmas :¬" Child-marriages among the Chakmas, or indeed among the hill people in general, are unknown. there is no
+I quote at length Major Lewin'sl graphic and sympathetic description of the marriage customs of the Chakmas :" Child-marriages among the Chakmas, or indeed among the hill people in general, are unknown. there is no
-−
-Marriage.
-−
 fixed time for getting married. Some of the young men indeed do not marry until they reach the age of 24 or
 : after that age, however, it is rare to see a man unmarried.
 Marriage is after this fashion: Father, mother, and son first look about them and fix upon a bride. This indispensable preliminary accomplished, the parents go to the house where their intended daughter-in-law resides, They take with them a bottle of spirits (this is an absolute necessary in every hill palaver). The matter will at first be opened cautiously. The lad's father will say, 'That is a fine tree growing near your house; I would fain plant in its shadow.' Should all go well, they retire after mutual civilities. Both in going and coming omens are carefully observed, and many a promising match has been put a stop to by un¬favourable auguries. A man or woman carrying fowls, water, fruit, or milk, if passed on the right hand, is a good omen and pleasant to meet with; but it is unfavourable to see a kite or a vulture, or to see one crow all by himself croaking on the left hand. if they are unfortunate enough to come upon the dead body 01 any animal on their road, they will go no further, but at once return home and stop all proceedings. Old people quote numerous stories to show that the disregard of unfavourable omens has in former times been productive of the most ruinous consequences.
-"By the time a second visit is due the relatives on both sides have been consulted; and if all has progressed satisfactorily and there are no dissentient voices, they go accompanied by some of the girls of the village, taking with them presents of curds and bind grain, and fum'a, a sweet fermented liquor made from rice. Then a day is settled (after the harvest is a favourite time), and a ring of betrothal is given to the bride, Now, also, is arranged what price the young man is to pay for his wife; for the Chakmas, in contradistinction to all our other tribes, buy their wives. The ordinary price is Rs. 100 to Rs, 150. On the mariage day a lal'ge stock of provisions is laid in by both houses, A procession of men and women start from the bedegroom's village with drums and music to fetch home the bride. The parents of the bridegroom present their intended daughter with her marriage dress, No ceremony, however, is performed; and the bride, after a short interval, is taken away, accompanied by all the relatives, to her new home.
+"By the time a second visit is due the relatives on both sides have been consulted; and if all has progressed satisfactorily and there are no dissentient voices, they go accompanied by some of the girls of the village, taking with them presents of curds and bind grain, and fum'a, a sweet fermented liquor made from rice. Then a day is settled (after the harvest is a favourite time), and a ring of betrothal is given to the bride, Now, also, is arranged what price the young man is to pay for his wife; for the Chakmas, in contradistinction to all our other tribes, buy their wives. The ordinary price is Rs. 100 to Rs, 150. On the marriage day a lal'ge stock of provisions is laid in by both houses, A procession of men and women start from the bedegroom's village with drums and music to fetch home the bride. The parents of the bridegroom present their intended daughter with her marriage dress, No ceremony, however, is performed; and the bride, after a short interval, is taken away, accompanied by all the relatives, to her new home.
 "On arriving all enter the house, and the bride and the bride-groom sit down together at a small table-the bride on the left hand of her husband. On the table are eggs, sweetmeats, rice, and plantains, all Jaid out on leaf platters, The best man (sowalla) sits behind the bridegroom, and the bride has a representative brides-maid (sowalii) behind her. These two then bind around the couple a muslin scad, asking. 'Are all willing, and shall this be accomplished.' Then all cry out, 'Bind them, Bind them,' so they are bound. The married pair have now to eat together, the wife feeding the husband and the husband the wife; and as at this stage of the ceremony a great deal of bashfulness is evinced, the bridesmaid and best man raise the hands of their respective charges to and From each other's mouths, to the intense enjoyment and hilarity of everyone present. After they have thus eaten and drunken, an elder of the
 village sprinkles them with river-water, pronounces them man and
 wife, and says a chann used for fruitfulness. The couple then retiro, and the guests keep it up until an early hour on the following morning. The next day, at the morning meal, the newly married come hand in hand and salute the elders of the families. The father of tho bride generally improves this occasion by addressing a short lecture to his son-in-law on the subject of marital duties. 'Take her,' he says; , I have given her to you; but she is young and not acquainted with her household duties. If therefore at any time you come back from the jltum and find the rice burnt, or anything else wrong, teach her: do not beat her. But at the end of three years, if she still continues ignorant, then beat her, but do not take her life; for if you do, I shall demand the price of blood at your hands, but for beating her I shall not hold you responsible or interfere. '
@@ Line 67: / Line 57: @@
 Sexual indiscretions before marriage are not severely dealt with, and usually end in marriage. But a man who carries off a young girl against her will is fined Rs. 60, and "also receives a good beating from the lads of the village to which a girl belongs." Incest is punished by a fine of Rs. 50 and corporal punishment. Once married, the chakma. women axe said to be good and faithful wives, and it is unusual for the village council to be called upon to exercise its power of granting a divorce. Such cases, however, do occur occasionally. The offender has to repay to the husband tho bride-price and the expenses incurred in the marriage, and in addition a fine of Rs. 50 or Rs. 60, which is divided between the dewan or ahUn of the sept and the Chief of the tribe. Divorced women can marry again.
 ==Religion==
 The Chakmis profess to be Buddhists, but during the last generation or so their practice in matters of Religion. religion has been noticeably coloured by contact with the gross Hinduism of Eastern Benga1. This tendency was encouraged by the example of Raja Dhann Baksh Khan and his wife Kilindi Rani, who observed the Hindu festivals, consulted Hindu astrologers, kept a Chittagong Brahman to supervise the daily worship of the goddess Kali, and persuaded themselves that they were lineal representatives of the Kshatriya caste. Some years ago, however, a celebrated Phoongyee came over from Arakan after the H.aja's death to endeavour to strengthen the cause of Buddhism and to take the