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| − | [[File: Priyadarshini Chatterjee bikini.jpg|Priyadarshini Chatterjee, the queen herself <br/> fbb Femina Miss India 2016 finalist. [http://www.thehoopsnews.com/photos-priyadarshini-chatterjee-is-miss-india-world-2016-12856/priyadarshini-chatterjee-hot '' The Hoops News'' ] |frame|500px]]
| + | ==Sources== |
| | | | |
| − | [[File: Adya Niraj bikini.png| Adya Niraj <br/> fbb Femina Miss India 2016 finalist|frame| left|500px]] | + | [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, We won the war, but was Bangladesh really liberated in 1971?, ''The Times of India'' Aug 6, 2024] |
| − | [[File: Adya Niraj child.png| Adya Niraj: childhood|frame|left|500px]]
| + | |
| | | | |
| − | [[File: Aishwarya Sheoran bikini.png| Aishwarya Sheoran <br/> fbb Femina Miss India 2016 finalist|frame|500px]]
| |
| − | [[File: Aishwarya Sheoran child.png| Aishwarya Sheoran: childhood|frame|500px]]
| |
| | | | |
| − | =box=
| + | ''' “Bottomless basket,” US national security adviser Henry Kissinger called Bangladesh soon after it was formed [in 1971]. Five decades on, Bangladesh has turned that around, but as the [2024] turmoil has shown, democracy weakened ''' ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| | | | |
| − | =box ends=
| + | |
| − | Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge
| + | |
| − | V
| + | |
| − | ol. 11(1), January 2012, pp. 70-77
| + | |
| − | Traditional, ethnic and fermented foods of different tribes of Manipur
| + | |
| − | Devi P & Suresh Kumar P
| + | |
| − | *
| + | |
| − | ICAR RC NEH Region, AP centre, Basar, Arunachal Pradesh- 791101
| + | |
| − | E-mail
| + | |
| − | :
| + | |
| − | psureshars@gmail.com
| + | |
| | | | |
| − | Traditional knowledge exists among different tribes on preparing boiled foods, fermented foods, beverages and
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| − | nutritionally rich traditional foods from various indigenous crop plants, forest products and meat of wild and domesticated
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| − | animals. Manipur has great ethno-cultural diversity, with two major tribes, the
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| − | Nagas
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| − | and the
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| − | Kukis
| |
| − | . The
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| − | Naga
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| − | tribe
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| − | comprises the
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| − | Maring
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| − | ,
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| − | Mao, Maram, Kabui, Tangkhul, Tadubi, Kolya, Khoiras/Mayangkhong, Koirangs, Chirus and
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| − | Maring
| |
| − | where as the
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| − | Kuki
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| − | tribe comprises the
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| − | Mizos, Paite, Thadou and Vaiphei. Meitei
| |
| − | and
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| − | Meitei Pangals
| |
| − | are two non
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| − | tribal communities of Manipur who has individual identity. The traditional foods of the
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| − | Manipuries
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| − | comprises
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| − | Iromba,
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| − | Champhu, Kangshoi, Hawaichar, Soibum, Ngaree, , Paknam, Chagem pomba, Kangshu, Hentak, Khazing, Heikak, sticky
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| − | rice chapatti/bread,
| |
| − | etc
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | Alcoholic beverages made up of rice are very common in almost all the festivals of the tribal
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| − | peoples of Manipur locally called as
| |
| − | Yu.
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| − | Among different produces, the people of Manipur have the habit of taking variety
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| − | of leafy vegetables which are available in plenty in the dense forests.
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| − | Keywords:
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| − | Manipur, Traditional foods, Fermented foods, Bamboo products, Ethnic foods
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| − | IPC Int. Cl.
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| − | 8
| |
| − | :
| |
| − | A47G, A47G 19/26, A47J 39/02, B01D 3/00, C12C 11/00, C12C 12/04, C12C 7/00, A01G 16/00
| |
| − | Manipur is one of the eight states of Northeast India,
| |
| − | bounded by Nagaland in the North, Mizoram in the
| |
| − | South, Assam in the West, and by the borders of the
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| − | country Myanmar in the East as well as in the part of
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| − | South. The state lies at latitude of 23°83’N - 25°68’N
| |
| − | and longitude of 93°03’E - 94°78’E. The total area
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| − | covered by the state is 22,327 km² with the population
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| − | of 23, 88, 634. The major crops of this state are
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| − | wheat, pulses, paddy, maize, sugarcane, potato and
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| − | mustard. The major fruits are pineapple, banana,
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| − | papaya, passion fruit, orange, lemon and mango. The
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| − | major vegetables are cabbage, cauliflower, pea, french
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| − | bean and tomato. The major forest products are oak,
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| − | teak, pine, cane, bamboo,
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| − | leihao
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| − | and
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| − | uningthou
| |
| − | . The
| |
| − | major export products are bamboo shoot products
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| − | ginger, pineapple, mushroom, etc
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| − | 1
| |
| − | . Glutinous rice is
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| − | cultivated in the valley and inter-most river basins of
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| − | the hills. Transplantation methods in the valley
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| − | cultivations led to substantial growth of population
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| − | with a distinct peasantry, associated with riverine and
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| − | lacustrine village settlements.
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| − | The Government of Manipur had recognized 32
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| − | different tribes. They are:
| |
| − | Animol, Chothe, Kacha
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| − | Naga, Kom, Maring, Paite, Sema, Tarao, Anal,
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| − | Gante, Kharem, Lamgang, Mao, Poumi Naga, Simte,
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| − | Thadou, Angami, Hmar, Koirao, Luisai, Mansang,
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| − | Purum, Sahlte, Vaipei, Chiru, Kabui, Koirangm,
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| − | Maram, Mayon, Ralte, Tangkhul and Jou.
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| − | These tribes come into two major tribes, i.e. i)
| |
| − | Naga
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| − | : The
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| − | Naga
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| − | tribe comprises the
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| − | Maring
| |
| − | ,
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| − | Mao, Maram, Kabui, Tangkhul, Tadubi, Kolya,
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| − | Khoiras/Mayangkhong, Koirangs, Chirus and Maring
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| − | 2
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | They occupy the Northern and North-western hills
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| − | of Manipur. The staple food is rice which is cooked
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| − | either in earthern pot/metal pot or in bamboo tube.
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| − | Young bamboo shoots are collected during summer
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| − | season and are peeled, dried and then added with
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| − | rice for consumption. ii)
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| − | Kuki
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| − | : They are also known
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| − | as
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| − | Khongois.
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| − |
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| − | They occupy the South western
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| − | and South eastern hills and is wide spread in the
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| − | district of Churachandpur, Tangnoupal and Sadar hills
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| − | in the northern Manipur. This tribe comprises
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| − | the
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| − | Mizos, Paite, Thadou and Vaiphei
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| − | 2
| |
| − | . Rice is the
| |
| − | staple food and there is certain restriction in the
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| − | consumption of animal flesh. Rice beer (
| |
| − | Yu
| |
| − | ) is the
| |
| − | most important alcoholic beverages in all the festivals
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| − | of this tribe
| |
| − | 3
| |
| − | . Dried fish is eaten by almost all the
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| − | ethnic groups. All type of domestic animals is eaten
| |
| − | except cat. They also eat locusts, dog, all kinds of
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| − | birds and frogs.
| |
| − | ——————
| |
| − | *
| |
| − | Corresponding author
| |
| − | DEVI & SURESH KUMAR: TRADITIONAL FOODS OF MANIPUR
| |
| − | 71
| |
| − | Meitei
| |
| − | and
| |
| − | Meitei Pangals are the communities of
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| − | Manipur which does not belong to tribes. The
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| − | meiteis
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| − | are distributed in the main valley and fish is the
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| − | common article of diet. Rice is the staple food and
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| − | wheat is not taken in the form of
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| − | chappatti
| |
| − | or
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| − | roti
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | The majorities of
| |
| − | Meitei Pangals
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| − | occupies the
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| − | Thoubal district and follow the Islamic way of life.
| |
| − | The region as a whole provides an exotic mosaic, rich
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| − | in the tapestry of colour, rhythm and movement
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| − | 3
| |
| − | . All
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| − | the ethnic groups living in the hills and the valley
| |
| − | prefer wild plants/plant parts as foods to introduce
| |
| − | cultivate plants. Though many of these plants are
| |
| − | available, nowadays the number and quality of
| |
| − | species are much less than past. Very few numbers of
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| − | introduced plants are replacing this vast number of
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| − | wild plants.
| |
| − | Different tribes have their own traditional foods
| |
| − | and beverages. The traditional food habits of tribal
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| − | population of the state are very simple and have to do
| |
| − | with the festival and rituals which forms a mosaic of
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| − | ethnic cultural combinations
| |
| − | 3
| |
| − | . Traditional knowledge
| |
| − | exists among different tribes on preparing boiled
| |
| − | foods, fermented foods, beverages and nutritionally
| |
| − | rich traditional foods from various indigenous crop
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| − | plants, forest products and meat of wild and
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| − | domesticated animals. These foods are part and parcel
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| − | of their social spectrum of life. Traditional foods are
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| − | not only rich in nutrients but also have certain
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| − | curative properties against many diseases and
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| − | disorders
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| − | 4
| |
| − | .
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| − | Meitei
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| − | diet has been influenced by many
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| − | other cultures due to various socio political reasons.
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| − | Sanskritisation is one of the biggest factors that
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| − | influence the change of dietary habit. From the meat
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| − | eater they became fish eater, and those who accepted
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| − | the Hinduism to its extreme even gave up fish and
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| − | became pure vegetarian. The
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| − | Manipuris
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| − | are usually
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| − | two meals eater, one in the morning and the other in
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| − | the evening /night. Occasionally, enjoy taking
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| − | Sinju
| |
| − | vegetable salad with fermented fish or roasted gram
| |
| − | flour. Alcoholic beverages of different tribal
| |
| − | communities have received attention of several
| |
| − | ethnobotanists and anthropologists. Introduction of
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| − | fast foods thorough globalization process,
| |
| − | accompanied by decrease in the use of traditional
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| − | foods of local tribe has resulted in many diseases
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| − | notably diabetes, heart diseases, and anaemia
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| − | particularly to pregnant and lactating women
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| − | 5
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | Though the new generation of tribes adopted to
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| − | modern food habits, due to its importance, it is
| |
| − | imperative to document the traditional food products
| |
| − | and their importance among different tribal
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| − | communities.
| |
| − | Methodology
| |
| − | The present study was conducted in Manipur state
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| − | covering all the districts. Thirty different villages
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| − | covering 200 different tribal people were conducted to
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| − | make the final conclusion. The population is covered
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| − | in such a way that it comprises of more than 50%
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| − | elders as they practice those traditional practices
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| − | still in household. The response of all sampled
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| − | respondents was recorded. A questionnaire after
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| − | pretesting and thereafter editing by amending,
| |
| − | recording errors and deleting queries that were
| |
| − | obviously erroneous was filled through structured
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| − | participatory interviews at the site residence of rural
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| − | people. Secondary information was collected from
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| − | district agriculture information centre, books, reports,
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| − | and electronic and non- electronic sources. The use of
| |
| − | multiple sources of information was intended to
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| − | increase `construct validity of the case study in terms
| |
| − | of seeking convergent lines of inquiry.
| |
| − | Results and discussion
| |
| − | Dietary pattern
| |
| − | Staple diet of the
| |
| − | Manipuries
| |
| − | is rice mixed with
| |
| − | Bora/Bada
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| − | fried or roasted peas or gram or
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| − | Kangou,
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| − | the fried vegetable and pulse. Rice is also eaten
| |
| − | with seasonal vegetables cooked with smoked, dried
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| − | or fermented fish. The
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| − | meitei
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| − | loves it mixed
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| − | with vegetable chutney (
| |
| − | Iromba
| |
| − | )/boiled delicacy
| |
| − | (
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| − | Champhut and Kangshoi
| |
| − | ). This is a mixture of
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| − | various boiled vegetable mashed with fermented
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| − | fish and chillies. Others like
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| − | Parkia
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| − | roxburghii
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| − | (
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| − | Yongchak
| |
| − | ), lotus rhizome (
| |
| − | Thambou
| |
| − | ), green
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| − | Makhana (
| |
| − | Thangjing
| |
| − | ), etc are
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| − | Manipuries
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| − | exclusives.
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| − | The
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| − | Meities
| |
| − | eats more than hundred varieties of leafy
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| − | vegetables. They learnt a very special art of
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| − | fermenting soyabean, bamboo shoots and fishes from
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| − | time immemorial. They make
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| − | Hawaichar
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| − | from
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| − | soyabean,
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| − | Soibum
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| − | ,
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| − | Shoidon
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| − | and
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| − | Soijin
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| − | from the
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| − | bamboo shoots.
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| − | Ngaree
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| − | and
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| − | Hentak
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| − | are made from
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| − | the small fishes. Carefully done fermentation is very
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| − | important for the safety reasons. Otherwise occasional
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| − | food poisoning is heard from
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| − | hawaichar
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| − | and mixed
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| − | vegetable salad/chutney
| |
| − | 7
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | Iromba
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| − | an eclectic combination of fresh vegetables,
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| − | bamboo shoots, fermented fish and chillies.
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| − | Heithongba
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| − | is a pungent dish of lemon, sugar, salt,
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| − | aonla
| |
| − | and tamarind.
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| − | Maroi morok thongba
| |
| − | , is another
| |
| − | INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE VOL 11, NO. 1, JANUARY 2012
| |
| − | 72
| |
| − | type of speciality.
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| − | M
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| − | orok
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| − | stands for green chilli, as a
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| − | result, this dish is bit hot in taste.
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| − | Madhurjan
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| − | is a
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| − | sweet made of milk, sugar and gramflour. A black
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| − | lentil called
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| − | Ooty
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| − | is compulsory at all feasts.
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| − | Vegetables consist of cauliflower/
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| − | lai patha
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| − | called
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| − | Sak
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| − | with pumpkin made into a hot and spicy curry along
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| − | with spinach and banana inflorescence. A wonderful
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| − | salad called
| |
| − | Sinju
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| − | made of finely shredded vegetables
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| − | and raw papaya, tossed in herbs. A dessert made of
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| − | rice called
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| − | chak-hao
| |
| − | is deep violet in colour and is
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| − | combined with milk, sugar, coconut and dry fruits.
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| − | Suktani
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| − | is a combination of neem leaves,
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| − | basak
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| − | leaves
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| − | and sugar.
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| − | Sweet Kabok is made up of molasses and
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| − | rice is a famous snack among the
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| − | Manipuries
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | Preparation of some Traditional foods
| |
| − | Soyabean products
| |
| − | Hawaichar
| |
| − | Hawaijar
| |
| − | is an indigenous traditional fermented
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| − | soyabean with characteristic flavour and stickiness. It
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| − | is consumed commonly in the local diet as a low cost
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| − | source of high protein food and plays an economical,
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| − | social and cultural role in Manipur. There is intent to
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| − | upgrade the status of
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| − | Hawaijar in order to increase its
| |
| − | marketability and profitability. In the traditional
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| − | method of
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| − | Hawaijar
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| − | preparation, medium and small
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| − | sized soyabean (
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| − | Glycine max
| |
| − | L.) seeds are cleaned
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| − | and sorted. The graded soyabean seeds are dipped in
| |
| − | water where the water level should be twice than that
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| − | of the seeds and leave it overnight. The seeds are
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| − | washed properly for two to three times with running
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| − | water which is followed by cooking either by using
| |
| − | pressure cooker or by conventional methods. The
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| − | solid portion, i.e. the cooked soybean was placed in a
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| − | bamboo basket after draining off the water portion. The
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| − | greasy portion is washed with lukewarm water till it
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| − | becomes non-greasy, and the remaining water was
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| − | drained off completely and the content is turned upside
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| − | down once or twice. The water portion is said to be
| |
| − | useful in washing cloths in olden times. The drained
| |
| − | water is believed to help in curing TB and also good
| |
| − | for women. Thrice folded cloth is placed in a coarse
| |
| − | bamboo basket. A thick layer of
| |
| − | Ficus hispida
| |
| − | leaves,
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| − | locally known as
| |
| − | Asse heibong
| |
| − | or banana (
| |
| − | Musa
| |
| − | spp.)
| |
| − | leaves are placed upon it. The cooked soyabeans are
| |
| − | placed in alternate layers above that. At the end,
| |
| − | another cloth which is folded 2 to 3 times is placed and
| |
| − | then the whole content is tied tightly with another cloth
| |
| − | to make air tight. This should be placed under the sun
| |
| − | during day times and near the fireplace at night in order
| |
| − | to let the fermentation process complete properly and
| |
| − | also to avoid maggots damage. The fermented
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| − | soyabean, i.e.
| |
| − | hawaichar
| |
| − | is ready in 3 days during
| |
| − | summer and during winter it takes 5 days. In order to
| |
| − | add more flavour it was kept near the fireplace as long
| |
| − | as possible. Ancient time’s rice husks were used
| |
| − | instead of cloth.
| |
| − | Hawaichar
| |
| − | can be eaten raw with salt
| |
| − | and chilli or cooked, etc. The preparation of
| |
| − | hawaichar
| |
| − | by natural fermentation leads to variation in quality due
| |
| − | to varying methodologies, fermentation time and
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| − | temperature of incubation. The fermentation takes
| |
| − | place under uncontrolled environmental conditions that
| |
| − | often leads to unsuccessful fermentation and poor
| |
| − | quality products which might be due to native
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| − | fermenting microflora
| |
| − | 8
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | The traditional
| |
| − | hawaichar
| |
| − | is characterised by its
| |
| − | alkalinity (
| |
| − | p
| |
| − | H 8.0-8.2), stickiness, and pungent
| |
| − | odour. The preparation of
| |
| − | hawaichar
| |
| − | is very simple,
| |
| − | similar to that of Japanese
| |
| − | Itohiki-Natto
| |
| − | (the whole
| |
| − | soyabean seed is used for fermentation)
| |
| − | 9
| |
| − | . But in
| |
| − | Kinema
| |
| − | (another Indian fermented soyabean), it is
| |
| − | dehulled and cracked into pieces before fermentation
| |
| − | 10
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | Unlike
| |
| − | Kinema
| |
| − | there is no addition of firewood ash
| |
| − | during
| |
| − | hawaichar
| |
| − | production. Microorganisms were
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| − | isolated and identified in
| |
| − | hawaichar
| |
| − | by molecular
| |
| − | techniques and resulted that three major phylogenic
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| − | group, i.e.
| |
| − | Bacillus
| |
| − | group comprising
| |
| − | Bacillus subtilis
| |
| − | and
| |
| − | Bacillus
| |
| − | licheniformis,
| |
| − | and
| |
| − | Staphylococcus spp.
| |
| − | comprising
| |
| − | Staphylococcus aureus
| |
| − | and
| |
| − | Staphylococcus
| |
| − | sciuri
| |
| − | are involved
| |
| − | 11
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | Dried Hawaichar
| |
| − | There are two types of dried
| |
| − | hawaichar
| |
| − | commonly
| |
| − | prepared by the people of Manipur. The first method
| |
| − | involves the common technique of making
| |
| − | hawaijar
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | After one week of preparation, salt is mixed along
| |
| − | with the
| |
| − | hawaijar
| |
| − | . The whole content is poured in a
| |
| − | bamboo (any bamboo with a longer internodes, bigger
| |
| − | hole and thinner outer part) where it is sealed with the
| |
| − | bamboo leaves and tied very tightly with a plastic
| |
| − | sheet. This is then placed in top of the fire place in the
| |
| − | kitchen for one week. The
| |
| − | hawaijar
| |
| − | obtained from
| |
| − | this has lesser smell and taste better. This can be kept
| |
| − | for a longer period of time. The second method is to
| |
| − | dry the fermented soyabean i.e.
| |
| − | hawaijar
| |
| − | in direct
| |
| − | sunlight and make it moisture free.
| |
| − | Pickled hawaijar
| |
| − | This method is practiced recently by the people of
| |
| − | Manipur. The fermented soyabean i.e. the
| |
| − | hawaijar
| |
| − | is
| |
| − | DEVI & SURESH KUMAR: TRADITIONAL FOODS OF MANIPUR
| |
| − | 73
| |
| − | fried in oil along with some
| |
| − | m
| |
| − | asala
| |
| − | and add a pinch
| |
| − | of salt to taste. This is then filled in a bottle along
| |
| − | with the excess oil and sealed. This can be stored for a
| |
| − | longer period of time.
| |
| − | Paknam
| |
| − | Onion leaves, chilli, salt, half tablespoon of sodium
| |
| − | bicarbonate, turmeric, spices,
| |
| − | garam masala
| |
| − | and
| |
| − | ngari
| |
| − | are required for the preparation of
| |
| − | paknam
| |
| − | . All
| |
| − | the contents are smashed properly then gram flour is
| |
| − | added into it, which should be mixed thoroughly and
| |
| − | placed in one or two layers of turmeric leaves. The
| |
| − | whole content is baked on a hot pan and a heavy
| |
| − | weight is placed upon. After 30 to 45 minutes it
| |
| − | imparts a typical flavour which indicates the product
| |
| − | is cooked.
| |
| − | Paknam
| |
| − | can be stored for a day or two at
| |
| − | the maximum.
| |
| − | Tree mushroom
| |
| − | paknam
| |
| − | can also be prepared
| |
| − | where all the ingredients are the same except that no
| |
| − | besan
| |
| − | and sodium bicarbonate is added and tree
| |
| − | mushroom is added along with the other ingredients.
| |
| − | Nganam paknam
| |
| − | is another kind of
| |
| − | paknam
| |
| − | where
| |
| − | small fishes are used while preparing the
| |
| − | paknam
| |
| − | . In
| |
| − | this case also, no
| |
| − | besan
| |
| − | (gram flour) and sodium
| |
| − | bicarbonate is added while small amount of asafoetida
| |
| − | and cut green chillies are added.
| |
| − | Chagem Pomba
| |
| − | Cucumber, carrot leaf, squash and its leaves, etc
| |
| − | are taken and then broken rice is added to it of about
| |
| − | 50 gm Some other vegetables which are cut into small
| |
| − | pieces can also be added. The contents are fried in
| |
| − | mustard oil, but stirring with spoon is restricted. All
| |
| − | the spices are added and a small amount of asafoetida
| |
| − | to it and kept it for at least 2 whistles in pressure
| |
| − | cooker. Fennel (
| |
| − | Foeniculum vulgare
| |
| − | ) was added when
| |
| − | almost cooked, instead of coriander in it.
| |
| − | Sea food based products
| |
| − | Ngari
| |
| − | For the preparation of
| |
| − | ngari
| |
| − | (fermented fish), a
| |
| − | typical small type of fish locally called as
| |
| − | phabou nga
| |
| − | is used. Daily meal of
| |
| − | Manipuries
| |
| − | is never completed
| |
| − | without
| |
| − | ngari
| |
| − | , which is eaten either in the form of
| |
| − | chutney (
| |
| − | iromba or morok metpa
| |
| − | ) or as an ingredient
| |
| − | in other curries. The
| |
| − | phabou nga
| |
| − | is washed
| |
| − | thoroughly with water and sundried properly till it
| |
| − | becomes crispy. Crushing of the fish head should be
| |
| − | done properly with the help of a hammer. A special
| |
| − | vessel is used for the preparation of
| |
| − | ngari
| |
| − | , where
| |
| − | mustard oil is plastered, the dried fish is then stacked
| |
| − | in proper order. The container is closed air tight after
| |
| − | filling. In order to make it air tight, sand is placed on
| |
| − | the top and fermentation is allow to occur naturally. It
| |
| − | takes about 3 to 6 months to mature and ready to eat.
| |
| − | It imparts a typical odour which indicates that the fish
| |
| − | is well fermented and ready for eating.
| |
| − | Kangshu
| |
| − | Kangshu
| |
| − | is another typical traditional food which
| |
| − | is eaten by the
| |
| − | Manipuries
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | Centella asiatica
| |
| − | (Indian
| |
| − | pennyworth) is cooked in a pressure cooker up to two
| |
| − | whistles after washing with water for the preparation
| |
| − | of
| |
| − | kangshu
| |
| − | . Product is cut into small pieces after
| |
| − | draining the excess water.
| |
| − | Morok metpa
| |
| − | (mixture of
| |
| − | ngari
| |
| − | , chilli and salt) is added in it and is mixed
| |
| − | thoroughly. To add flavour roasted prawn or fish is
| |
| − | added and finally coriander is added.
| |
| − | Kangshu
| |
| − | can
| |
| − | also be prepared by using bamboo shoots instead of
| |
| − | Centella asiatica
| |
| − | . In this case, the bamboo shoots are
| |
| − | cut into pieces after washing with running water and
| |
| − | kept it overnight, and then the next day it is again
| |
| − | washed and cooked in a pressure cooker. Thereafter
| |
| − | the same procedure is followed as in case of the
| |
| − | above.
| |
| − | Hentak
| |
| − | Hentak
| |
| − | was used by the
| |
| − | Manipuries
| |
| − | before
| |
| − | ngari
| |
| − | came into existence.
| |
| − | Phabou nga
| |
| − | or
| |
| − | ngakha
| |
| − | is used
| |
| − | for
| |
| − | hentak
| |
| − | preparation,. This fish are sun dried after
| |
| − | thorough washing till the moisture content in the fish
| |
| − | is the lowest. It is then crushed into powder form.
| |
| − | Wild
| |
| − | colocasia
| |
| − | stem is crushed after washing and
| |
| − | cutting into pieces. The powdered fish and the
| |
| − | crushed wild
| |
| − | colocasia
| |
| − | stem are mixed properly and
| |
| − | are rolled in round form and stored in a container,
| |
| − | then after 3 days it is again crushed with the help of a
| |
| − | pestle and mortar. This crushing is done at a regular
| |
| − | interval if to be stored for a longer period of time.
| |
| − | Instead of
| |
| − | colocasia
| |
| − | stem, onion can also be used but
| |
| − | hentak
| |
| − | made out of it can not be stored for long.
| |
| − | Khazing
| |
| − | It is the small sized prawn which is available in the
| |
| − | Loktak lake
| |
| − | of Manipur.
| |
| − | Khazing
| |
| − | is available in the
| |
| − | market as dried form or is consumed in fresh form.
| |
| − | When it is thoroughly dried, it is used in making
| |
| − | curries. Dried
| |
| − | Khazing
| |
| − | has a very long shelf life. In
| |
| − | other way, the freshly catch
| |
| − | Khazing
| |
| − | is fried along
| |
| − | with mint leaves (
| |
| − | Mentha arvensis
| |
| − | ).
| |
| − | Heikak
| |
| − | Heikak
| |
| − | is a hydrophilic plant and the fruit is black
| |
| − | in colour and irregular in shape is consumed by
| |
| − | INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE VOL 11, NO. 1, JANUARY 2012
| |
| − | 74
| |
| − | almost all the people of Manipur. It is consumed by
| |
| − | e
| |
| − | ither boiling it in water or by converting it into flour
| |
| − | and used for preparing
| |
| − | chapatti
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | Sticky rice chapatti/bread
| |
| − | This kind of
| |
| − | chapatti
| |
| − | or bread is prepared during
| |
| − | the festivals like
| |
| − | Gan-ngai or Lui-ngai ni
| |
| − | or
| |
| − | Christmas by the youths. The required amount of
| |
| − | sticky rice is soaked for 3-4 hrs in plain water then
| |
| − | sun drying is carried out on a bamboo tray known as
| |
| − | yankok
| |
| − | locally. When it is dried completely with the
| |
| − | least moisture in it, grinding is done in a mortar till it
| |
| − | becomes powder. The coarser part is removed with
| |
| − | the help of a sieve and ground again. In another
| |
| − | container sugar solution is prepared, the amount of
| |
| − | sugar depends upon the desired taste of the person.
| |
| − | Now, the rice flour is mixed with the sugar syrup and
| |
| − | chapatti
| |
| − | is prepared.
| |
| − | Bread can be prepared in two
| |
| − | different methods, i.e.
| |
| − | 1
| |
| − | Boiled method:
| |
| − | In this method, the mixture of
| |
| − | rice flour with the sugar syrup is made very hard
| |
| − | and round in shape which is then wrapped with
| |
| − | cardamom leaves and tied properly. In another
| |
| − | container water is boiled and the above content is
| |
| − | poured and cooking is carried out for an hour.
| |
| − | This kind of bread can be kept for one week but
| |
| − | gets hard if kept for long so, the cardamom leaves
| |
| − | are removed and the content is fried in oil.
| |
| − | 2
| |
| − | Fried method:
| |
| − | The mixture of rice flour with the
| |
| − | sugar syrup is made softer by adding more water
| |
| − | and made to round shape. A small amount of
| |
| − | edible oil is also added in it. Then in the fire place
| |
| − | some charcoal is removed just near by and the
| |
| − | content is put on top of it. When this becomes
| |
| − | black in colour, it is turned upside down so that
| |
| − | the other part also becomes black. The upper
| |
| − | black portion is scraped out and the remaining is
| |
| − | used for consumption. This method is the oldest
| |
| − | form of making bread by the hill people of
| |
| − | Manipur.
| |
| − | The
| |
| − | Tangkhul
| |
| − | people of Manipur prepare another
| |
| − | special kind of
| |
| − | chapatti
| |
| − | from
| |
| − | sesame. In this method,
| |
| − | the mixture of rice flour with water is made very hard
| |
| − | and even coarser part of the rice flour can also be
| |
| − | used. No additional items are added with it, not even
| |
| − | salt. Then similar to the fry method, some charcoal is
| |
| − | removed just near by and the content is put on top of
| |
| − | it near the fire. In a mortar, raw sesame is ground
| |
| − | where a small amount of water is sprinkled in it and
| |
| − | salt is added to taste. When oil started coming out
| |
| − | from the sesame the above content is added and
| |
| − | ground along with it. But if excess amount of oil
| |
| − | comes out then it is removed manually. The mixture
| |
| − | can be used in preparation of
| |
| − | chapatti
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | Bamboo based products
| |
| − | In Manipur bamboo forest covers an area of around
| |
| − | 3218 sq Km. The most commonly available bamboo
| |
| − | species are
| |
| − | Bambusa aurndinaca (saneibi),
| |
| − | Bambusa pallida (Kal-sundi), Bambusa nana (Khok),
| |
| − | Dendrocalamus giganteus (meiribob), Dendrocalamus
| |
| − | flagellifer (Longa wa), Dendrocalamus hamiltonii
| |
| − | (Wanap/unap/pecha), Dendrocalamus sericeus(Ooii)
| |
| − | and
| |
| − | Melocana bambusoides (Moubi/muli), Teinostachyum
| |
| − | dulooa (Dulu), Teinostachyum wightii(Nath),
| |
| − | Bambusa tulda (Utang).
| |
| − |
| |
| − | About 20-30 MT bamboo
| |
| − | shoots are consumed annually for the production of
| |
| − | canned bamboo-shoots. Canning is done either in
| |
| − | brine or in syrup. Export of these canned bamboo
| |
| − | shoots are done in Japan, Singapore, China, Thailand,
| |
| − | Hong kong and UK The chemical constitution of a
| |
| − | raw bamboo shoot in percentage are; moisture, 88.8;
| |
| − | protein, 3.90; fat, 0.5; minerals, 1.10; carbohydrate,
| |
| − | 5.70 and calorific value, 43 Kcal. Some important
| |
| − | products made from bamboo are:
| |
| − | Soibum.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Tender bamboo shoots are collected and
| |
| − | cleaned, outer sheaths should be removed. Only inner
| |
| − | white portion is used for fermentation. There are
| |
| − | many ways for the preparation of fermented bamboo
| |
| − | shoot, i.e.
| |
| − | 1
| |
| − | Inside a pit:
| |
| − | In this method, a pit is dug and a
| |
| − | basket made by using bamboo of the shape of the
| |
| − | pit is placed into it. Care should be taken to
| |
| − | slightly inclined the bamboo basket while placing
| |
| − | so as to allow the flow of the water produced by
| |
| − | the bamboo shoots during fermentation. Wild
| |
| − | colocasia
| |
| − | leaves is put in and around the pit in a
| |
| − | thick layer of about 2-3 inch, then the bamboo
| |
| − | shoots are made into longitudinal shreds and kept
| |
| − | in air tight condition. The fermented bamboo
| |
| − | shoot is ready for sale or for making curry within
| |
| − | 3 to 5 days. These fermented bamboo shoots are
| |
| − | locally known as
| |
| − | soibum
| |
| − | (Fig. 1). The water
| |
| − | collected from this can also be preserved and is
| |
| − | used again in new fermentation of bamboo shoots.
| |
| − | Now a day, instead of wild
| |
| − | colocasia
| |
| − | leaves,
| |
| − | plastic sheets are used, provided holes are made
| |
| − | in the bottom to allow drainage of water. This
| |
| − | kind of fermented bamboo shoots can be kept for
| |
| − | a longer period of time i.e. for one month or more
| |
| − | DEVI & SURESH KUMAR: TRADITIONAL FOODS OF MANIPUR
| |
| − | 75
| |
| − | if kept air tight. The degree of sourness shows a
| |
| − | r
| |
| − | apid increase in the initial stage of fermentation
| |
| − | but as it reaches a peak point at about 7-10 days,
| |
| − | it started decreasing. These methods of preparing
| |
| − | fermented bamboo shoots are followed in almost
| |
| − | all the hill districts of Manipur. Bamboo varieties
| |
| − | such as
| |
| − | Sanaibi, Nath, Unal, Longa wa, Meiribob,
| |
| − | Ooii,
| |
| − | etc are used for this purpose. Care should be
| |
| − | taken to avoid varieties such as
| |
| − | Utang
| |
| − | and
| |
| − | Knok
| |
| − | as they are not edible
| |
| − | 12
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | Sanaibi
| |
| − | is the best
| |
| − | bamboo shoot variety for preparation of
| |
| − | fermented bamboo shoots, which is followed by
| |
| − | nath
| |
| − | variety. But
| |
| − | Unal
| |
| − | variety gives better texture
| |
| − | and appearance.
| |
| − | 2
| |
| − | In an earthen pot
| |
| − | :
| |
| − | This method of the
| |
| − | fermentation of bamboo shoot is the same as
| |
| − | said above, the only difference is that instead of
| |
| − | fermenting the bamboo shoots inside a pit,
| |
| − | an earthen pot is used where a hole is made at
| |
| − | the bottom for the drainage of excess water
| |
| − | during fermentation. During fermentation in an
| |
| − | earthen pot some people prefer to add
| |
| − | Heibung
| |
| − | for enhancing the fermentation and also for a
| |
| − | sourer taste.
| |
| − | 3
| |
| − | In open condition:
| |
| − | In open condition, wild
| |
| − | colocasia
| |
| − | leaves are used in thick layers. The
| |
| − | sliced bamboo shoots are placed on top of it and
| |
| − | are again covered with these leaves. Fermentation
| |
| − | is allowed to take place in this way. No other
| |
| − | addition is done in this method.
| |
| − | 4
| |
| − | Dipping in water:
| |
| − | For this method a special
| |
| − | bamboo variety is used i.e.
| |
| − | nath
| |
| − | variety. Locally it
| |
| − | is called
| |
| − | nath ki soibum.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | This method is
| |
| − | commonly used by the people of Bishempur
| |
| − | district of Manipur. As the
| |
| − | nath
| |
| − | bamboo is very
| |
| − | small and long, it is sliced longitudinally as whole
| |
| − | for about 2-3 cm and it is placed in a container
| |
| − | (plastic buckets are generally employed these
| |
| − | days) where water is poured just to dipped the
| |
| − | contains. It is covered and kept till sale. The
| |
| − | fermented bamboo shoots are ready to sale after
| |
| − | 3 days.
| |
| − | Nath
| |
| − | variety gives very tasty fermented
| |
| − | bamboo shoots but it can’t be stored for a longer
| |
| − | duration of time.
| |
| − | 5
| |
| − | Dried
| |
| − | Usoi
| |
| − | (bamboo shoot):
| |
| − | For this purpose
| |
| − | any bamboo shoot variety which is edible is used.
| |
| − | All the bamboo shoots are sliced to small pieces
| |
| − | and is boiled with water then drying in a bamboo
| |
| − | tray under the sun is carried out after draining off
| |
| − | the excess water. This dried bamboo shoots are
| |
| − | packed in plastic sheets and used in off season or
| |
| − | is send for sale
| |
| − | 4
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | 6
| |
| − | Dried
| |
| − | soibum
| |
| − | (fermented bamboo shoots):
| |
| − | In
| |
| − | this method, after the completion of normal
| |
| − | fermentation of the bamboo shoots, they are dried
| |
| − | either under the sun or in top of the fire. For this
| |
| − | method the Tankhul people of Manipur uses a
| |
| − | special type of bamboo shoots variety which is
| |
| − | very small and long, locally known as
| |
| − | ngathan
| |
| − | . It
| |
| − | gives a twisted appearance after drying just like
| |
| − | noodles.
| |
| − | 7
| |
| − | Fermented bamboo shoot Pickle:
| |
| − | The
| |
| − | soibum
| |
| − | in
| |
| − | general (fermented or dried) are consumed by all
| |
| − | the people of Manipur devoid of any caste or
| |
| − | tribe. It is eaten as raw with fermented fish or
| |
| − | boiled and cooked form with any meat or fish or
| |
| − | vegetables. It forms an important food part in all
| |
| − | the festivals observed by the
| |
| − | Manipuries
| |
| − | .
| |
| − | Nowadays, in some small scale industries the
| |
| − | bamboo shoots are blanched after slicing into
| |
| − | small pieces in hot water to reduce its enzyme
| |
| − | activity and are treated with KMS (1%) for
| |
| − | 10 min. After which it is sun dried and packed in
| |
| − | an air tight container and is send for sale.
| |
| − | Alcoholic beverages
| |
| | | | |
| − | The commonly consumed alcoholic beverage in
| + | |
| − | Manipur is prepared from rice. It is commonly known
| + | |
| − | as
| + | |
| − | Yu
| + | |
| − | . In this case, any kind of rice is used for the
| + | |
| − | preparation of alcoholic beverage but the
| + | |
| − | Tankhul
| + | |
| − | tribe used only sticky rice. In some of the alcoholic
| + | |
| − | beverages yeast is required for conducting the
| + | |
| − | fermentation. This is prepared as described below.
| + | |
| − | Preparation of yeast (
| + | |
| − | Hamei
| + | |
| − | )
| + | |
| | | | |
| − | The quality of rice beer is partially depending upon
| |
| − | the quality of yeast used. It is otherwise called as
| |
| − | Hamei
| |
| − | by
| |
| − | Kabui
| |
| − | tribes and
| |
| − | Chamri
| |
| − | by the
| |
| − | Tankhul
| |
| − | tribes. For preparation of
| |
| − | Hamei
| |
| − | , finely grinded rice
| |
| − | powder, where the rice was previously soaked in
| |
| − | water for 2-3 hrs is thoroughly mixed with the bark
| |
| − | powders of
| |
| − | Yanglei
| |
| − | (Fig. 2).
| |
| | | | |
| − | The mixture is kept in large vessel and water is
| + | |
| − | added slowly till the mixture made into paste with the
| + | |
| − | required consistency. The paste is then spread on the
| + | |
| − | bamboo mat/banana leaves and made into small cubes
| + | |
| − | or tablet form. The prepared tablets are sun dried till
| + | |
| − | the material is completely dried.
| + | |
| − | Hamei
| + | |
| − | can be stored
| + | |
| − | in cool, dry place for over a year. For 1 kg rice,
| + | |
| − | around 8-10 gm
| + | |
| − | Yanglei
| + | |
| − | is added. Three different
| + | |
| − | kinds of alcoholic beverages are consumed. They are:
| + | |
| − | INDIAN J TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE VOL 11, NO. 1, JANUARY 2012
| + | |
| − | 76
| + | |
| − | a)
| + | |
| − | Y
| + | |
| − | u angouba:
| + | |
| − | For the preparation of
| + | |
| − | yu angouba
| + | |
| − | the rice is soaked in water for around 2-3 hrs
| + | |
| − | along with some germinated paddy. For 1 Kg rice
| + | |
| − | around 100gm germinated paddy is added. After
| + | |
| − | this, the water is drained out and the soaked rice
| + | |
| − | is crushed with the help of a mortar till powder
| + | |
| − | form. In another vessel water is boiled and in this
| + | |
| − | boiled water the crushed rice is added with
| + | |
| − | continuous stirring till it gets cooled then it is
| + | |
| − | covered by a muslin cloth and kept for 2-3 days
| + | |
| − | without any disturbance. Within these days form
| + | |
| − | started coming out and a typical flavour and
| + | |
| − | odour is released. This indicates that
| + | |
| − | yu angouba
| + | |
| − | is now ready to consume. The
| + | |
| − | Tankhul
| + | |
| − | tribe of
| + | |
| − | Manipur uses a typical pot which is of the shape
| + | |
| − | of a conical flask, so after pouring the content it is
| + | |
| − | sealed with cow dung and ashes mixture. This
| + | |
| − | tribe uses only paddy and not rice for the
| + | |
| − | preparation of
| + | |
| − | yu angouba
| + | |
| − | , and it is known as
| + | |
| − | Khor
| + | |
| − | in their local dialect
| + | |
| − | 12
| + | |
| − | .
| + | |
| − | Yu angouba
| + | |
| − | can’t be
| + | |
| − | stored for a longer period of time. It can be stored
| + | |
| − | for a maximum of 7 days. This kind of alcoholic
| + | |
| − | beverage if consumed within 2-3 days then is said
| + | |
| − | to be beneficial for our body, it is compared to
| + | |
| − | drinking of milk but in a limited quantity i.e. 500
| + | |
| − | ml at the maximum.
| + | |
| − | b)
| + | |
| − | Atingba:
| + | |
| − | In this type of alcoholic beverage rice is
| + | |
| − | cooked and spread in a container or in a tray made
| + | |
| − | of bamboo.
| + | |
| − | Hamei
| + | |
| − | is mixed properly along with
| + | |
| − | the cooked rice. The whole content is transferred
| + | |
| − | in a vessel then a little amount of water is poured
| + | |
| − | just to dip it. Then cover with a muslin cloth. Heat
| + | |
| − | is released for 2-3 days
| + | |
| − | 13
| + | |
| − | . After which water is
| + | |
| − | again poured to ease the heat.
| + | |
| − | Atingba
| + | |
| − | is ready to
| + | |
| − | drink after 6-8 hrs of pouring the water but this
| + | |
| − | will give a very light drink. A proper
| + | |
| − | Atingba
| + | |
| − | is
| + | |
| − | formed after 4-5 days of fermentation during
| + | |
| − | summer and after 7-8 days in winter. This kind
| + | |
| − | of alcoholic beverage can be consumed for only
| + | |
| − | 1-2 days after fermentation but can be kept for
| + | |
| − | around 1-2 months which is used for preparing
| + | |
| − | Yu
| + | |
| − | .
| + | |
| − | The
| + | |
| − | tankhul
| + | |
| − | tribe calls this type of wine as
| + | |
| − | Patso
| + | |
| − | .
| + | |
| − | c
| + | |
| − | )
| + | |
| − | Y
| + | |
| − | u:
| + | |
| − | Yu
| + | |
| − | in kabui or
| + | |
| − | Acham
| + | |
| − | in tankhul is prepared
| + | |
| − | from
| + | |
| − | Atingba
| + | |
| − | . This
| + | |
| − | Atingba
| + | |
| − | is poured in an
| + | |
| − | aluminum pot and is cooked in low flame. Above
| + | |
| − | to this pot an aluminum funnel is placed and from
| + | |
| − | this a pipe is connected to the otter part of the pot.
| + | |
| − | This pipe is used for collecting
| + | |
| − | yu
| + | |
| − | . The pot is
| + | |
| − | covered tightly with an aluminum plate. On top of
| + | |
| − | this another aluminum pot is placed containing
| + | |
| − | cold water. All the connecting points are sealed
| + | |
| − | properly with cow dung paste. Distillation
| + | |
| − | continuous until all the alcohol present in the
| + | |
| − | content is out. This can be checked by dipping a
| + | |
| − | small stick into the boiling
| + | |
| − | Atingba
| + | |
| − | and lit it, if
| + | |
| − | produce green flame than it indicates that the
| + | |
| − | alcohol content is more
| + | |
| − | 14 ,15
| + | |
| − | . So, based on this
| + | |
| − | technique the distillation process is continued.
| + | |
| − | The remaining content after the extraction of
| + | |
| − | yu
| + | |
| − | is used as pig feed. This type of alcoholic
| + | |
| − | beverage is very hard as compared to the others
| + | |
| − | stated above (Fig. 3).
| + | |
| − | Figs.1—3: (1)Street vendor selling
| + | |
| − | S
| + | |
| − | oibum
| + | |
| − | in local market, (2) Yeast tablets and (3) Traditional preparation of
| + | |
| − | Yu
| + | |
| − | DEVI & SURESH KUMAR: TRADITIONAL FOODS OF MANIPUR
| + | |
| − | 77
| + | |
| − | Another kind of alcoholic beverage prepared from
| + | |
| − | ba
| + | |
| − | nana is commonly consumed by the
| + | |
| − | naga
| + | |
| − | tribes of
| + | |
| − | Manipur known as Banana wine; this is prepared by
| + | |
| − | fermenting the ripe banana in a closed container with
| + | |
| − | a little amount of water
| + | |
| − | 16
| + | |
| − | . No inoculum is added for
| + | |
| − | conducting the fermentation. The wine is ready to
| + | |
| − | drink after 3 days and is advisable to consume it
| + | |
| − | within 1 or 2 days after opening the cover.
| + | |
| | | | |
| − | ==Conclusion== | + | ==1905- 1971: three partitions== |
| − | The society, culture, traditions, ethics and food
| + | |
| − | habit of any community cannot be seen in the isolated
| + | |
| − | mode as they are all intermingled and much more
| + | |
| − | complex. The ecology provides a range of probability
| + | |
| − | to select the plant and animal sources, culture decides
| + | |
| − | the tradition and the ethics determines the habit of
| + | |
| − | eating the food. The traditions maintained by various
| + | |
| − | communities of
| + | |
| − | Manipuries
| + | |
| − | are having strong ethical
| + | |
| − | issues. The advent of modern civilization has
| + | |
| − | adversely affected the tradition and heritage of
| + | |
| − | community and thus the younger generations are
| + | |
| − | not exposed to traditional practices. There should
| + | |
| − | be focused efforts to promote traditional food
| + | |
| − | systems within rural communities. Rewarding and
| + | |
| − | acknowledging young people who demonstrate
| + | |
| − | interest and awareness in the health of environment
| + | |
| − | and in their traditional foods would also raise the
| + | |
| − | profile of these issues. Traditional foods, community
| + | |
| − | dinners can also provide opportunities to promote
| + | |
| − | food products and knowledge about ethnic foods. In
| + | |
| − | future, the nutritional and microbial aspects of various
| + | |
| − | traditional foods are needed to be analyzed.
| + | |
| − | ==Acknowledgement==
| + | |
| − | We heartily thank to all the tribal people who
| + | |
| − | shared their traditional knowledge with the authors to
| + | |
| − | compile this manuscript. The financial help offered to
| + | |
| − | conduct this survey by GOI from CSS Horticulture
| + | |
| − | mission is also highly acknowledged.
| + | |
| − | References
| + | |
| − | 1
| + | |
| − | Haokip & Ngamthang, Basic Delineation Map of Manipur,
| + | |
| − | Profile on state of environment report of Manipur,
| + | |
| − | (Ministry of Environment and Forests, Manipur), 2006-07, 4-9.
| + | |
| − | 2
| + | |
| − | Census Population,
| + | |
| − | Census of India
| + | |
| − | , (Ministry of Finance
| + | |
| − | India), 2001, 12-18.
| + | |
| − | 3
| + | |
| − | Bareh HM,
| + | |
| − | Encyclopaedia of NE India 1. Arunachal
| + | |
| − | Pradesh
| + | |
| − | , (Mittal Publication, New Delhi), 2001, 2-233.
| + | |
| − | 4
| + | |
| − | Singh RK & Sureja AK, Centurion women and diverse
| + | |
| − | knowledge systems,
| + | |
| − | Indian J Tradit Knowle,
| + | |
| − | 5 (3) (2006)
| + | |
| − | 413-419.
| + | |
| − | 5
| + | |
| − | Mao AA & Odyou M, Traditional fermented foods of the
| + | |
| − | Naga tribes of North-eastern India,
| + | |
| − | Indian J Tradit Knowle,
| + | |
| − | 6
| + | |
| − | (1) (2007) 37-41.
| + | |
| − | 6
| + | |
| − | http://www.manipur.webs/
| + | |
| − | 7
| + | |
| − | Singh NR,
| + | |
| − | Dietary pattern: Edible wild plants of Manipur,
| + | |
| − | (ADAM Publications), 2003, 7-9.
| + | |
| − | 8
| + | |
| − | Tamang JP, Ethnic fermented foods of the eastern Himalayas,
| + | |
| − | In:
| + | |
| − | 2
| + | |
| − | nd
| + | |
| | | | |
| − | International conference on fermented foods, health
| + | India and Pakistan were partitioned once, in 1947. But Bangladesh was partitioned thrice — 1905, 1947 and 1971. The contentious theory of the origins of Bangladesh is that it goes back to 1905, when the British Viceroy of India Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal. Indian nationalists and the intellectuals of Bengal vehemently opposed it. The seeds of Bengali nationalism had been sown. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | status and social wellbeing
| + | |
| − | , SASNET, Dec 17-18, 2005, | + | == The Pakistan movement and East Bengal== |
| − | (Anand Agricultural University, Anand), India, 235. | + | |
| − | 9
| + | When the two-nation theory was floated, the name for the new homeland for Muslims, Pakistan, was suggested by a young Britain-educated lawyer Choudhary Rahmat Ali in 1933. P for Punjab, A for Afghan province (now KhyberPakhtunkhwa), K for Kashmir, I for Indus, S for Sindh, and ʻstanʼ for Balochistan. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | Ohta T,
| + | |
| − | Natto
| + | East Bengal found no mention. It angered the revolutionaries of Bengal. In 1940, fiery Bengal politician AK Fazlul Huq proposed the Lahore Resolution on behalf of the All India Muslim League — it called for independent states of Muslims in India — and nationalists began imagining an independent East Bengal. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | , In: | + | |
| − | Legume-based fermented foods
| + | == The 1960s== |
| − | , edited by | + | |
| − | NR Reddy, MD Pierson, & DK Salunkhe, (CRC Press,
| + | By the 1960s, it had turned into a movement. Bangabandhu (friend of Bangladesh) Mujib, incarcerated on and off, was sent off to jail again in 1968 in the infamous ʻAgartala Conspiracyʼ case. Anger spilled onto the streets and spread to the rest of Pakistan, with violent student protests against Pakistanʼs military junta in 1969. The anti-government agitation ousted the decade-long military dictatorship of General Ayub Khan. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | Florida), 1986, 85-95.
| + | |
| − | 10
| + | ==1970: a landslide victory unpalatable to Pakistan == |
| − | Sarkar PK, Tamang JP, Cook PE & Owens JD,
| + | |
| − | Kinema
| + | Mujib won a landslide victory in the first ever general elections in December 1970. He was poised to be the head of the government of Pakistan. Three months later, opposition leaders from the provinces of Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and the North West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) pledged allegiance to Mujibʼs Six-Point Political Agenda, which sought regional autonomy for the provinces in Pakistan. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | -a
| + | |
| − | traditional soybean fermented food: proximate composition
| + | Between Mujib winning and this agenda being accepted by political leaders, General Khadim Hussain Raja, commander of the Eastern Command, planned Operation Blitz. It would mean suspension of all political activities and a return to military rule. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | and microflora,
| + | |
| − | Food Microbiol
| + | The armed forces of Pakistan would be allowed to move against “defiant political leaders” and take them into “protective custody”. But Lieutenant General Yaqub Khan, who was chief of general staff of the Eastern Command, and Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan, who was governor of East Pakistan, scuttled the plan. Not for long, though. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | , 11(1994) 47-55. | + | |
| − | 11
| + | The frustrated General Yahya Khan, president of Pakistan, ousted both Khan and Ahsan. Later, General Raja was also shown the door. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | Jeyaram K, Singh WM, Premarani T, Devi AR & Chanu KS,
| + | |
| − | Talukdar NC & Singh MR, Molecular diversification of
| + | == Mukti Bahini== |
| − | dominant microflora associated with
| + | |
| − | Hawaijar
| + | ''' Why the Mukti Bahini was formed) ''' |
| − | - a traditional
| + | |
| − | fermented soybean (
| + | Weeks before the genocidal campaign of March 25, 1971, codenamed Operation Searchlight, most officers and soldiers of the East Bengal Regiment and border guards East Pakistan Rifles revolted. The rebel officers and soldiers along with hundreds of border guard troops and policemen crossed into India, with fire cover from the Indian Border Security Force shielding them. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | Glycine max L.
| + | |
| − | ) food of Manipur, India,
| + | The rebel officers held a crucial meeting on April 12 at Teliapara in Sylhet — the Mukti Bahini (Bangladesh Liberation Force) was formed under the command of Colonel (later General) MAG Osmany. The Mukti Bahini decided it would go the guerrilla way, on the lines of what Vietnam rebels did, instead of conventional war. Thousands of students, youths and farmers, including women, joined the Mukti Bahini. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | Int J Food Microbiol
| + | |
| − | , 122 (2008) 259-268.
| + | ==1971: The triumph == |
| − | 12
| + | |
| − | Manihar Singh A,
| + | No liberation war in the world was as decisive as that of Bangladesh. The barefoot, half-naked soldiers of the Mukti Bahini had faced off with the Islamic militia of Pakistan and emerged victorious. A triumphant Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the leader of the East Pakistan Awami League who led the resistance for an independent East Bengal, was released from prison in January 1972. When he took over the reins of the country, he had a huge task ahead of him. Corruption was raging, a famine was sweeping the nation and the ravages of over a decade of struggle had rent the people apart. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | History of Manipuri Literature
| + | |
| − | , (New | + | ==1975== |
| − | Delhi: Sahitya Akademi), 1966, 12.
| + | |
| − | 13
| + | He got to work but his compatriots betrayed him. He was assassinated in a military putsch on 15 August 1975 – when India was celebrating its Independence Day. Fifty years on, the secular ethos he died defending is under threat. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | Hijam Irabot,
| + | |
| − | Imagi Pujah, Imphal,
| + | == Sheikh Hasina== |
| − | (Irabot Leirak Phonba
| + | |
| − | Lup), 2005, 12-17.
| + | [Mujib’s] daughter, Sheikh Hasina, who took over in 2009 after the country had seen three decades of autocratic regimes. The economy took off. She opened up the country to foreign investment from India, Japan, South Korea, the US, Turkey and European countries. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | 14
| + | |
| − | http://www.kanglaonline.com
| + | Soon, Bangladesh became the second-largest exporter of readymade garments. Pharmaceutical products are its other big export, to more than 70 countries, and frozen fish and food to Europe, North America, the Middle East and Australasia. Bangladesh made big strides in meeting Sustainable Development Goals. Hasina has been elected Prime Minister thrice, holding office for 12 years. Her decision to take in more than a million Rohingya refugees who had fled Myanmar was appreciated globally. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | 15
| + | |
| − | Chatradhari S & Irabot H, (Soyam Publication. Imphal).
| + | But the human rights record at home has been controversial. Sectarian violence against Hindus in mid-October of 2021 cast a shadow on the secular credentials of the country. Rights groups claim no perpetrator of sectarian violence against religious minorities, desecration of temples, arson and plunder faced criminal proceedings. Before the 2018 general elections, the authorities ignored human rights groups, civil society and journalistsʼ bodies to enact the Digital Security Act, which was believed to throttle freedom of expression. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | 1996, 23-34
| + | |
| − | 16
| + | In three years since then, 1,516 cases have been filed under the law against 142 journalists, 35 teachers, 194 politicians and 67 students. None against Islamic evangelists who peddle hate speech online against womenʼs empowerment and elective democracy, and want a theocratic state. Nor against those uploading videos on YouTube demanding that the countryʼs flag be changed to a crescent and the national anthem be scrapped because a Hindu poet (Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore) wrote it. “It is a retreat from the commitments of 1971,” said acclaimed social scientist Prof Rehman Sobhan. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | Lokendrajit S,
| + | |
| − | Irabot Ki Seireng, Ritu
| + | The authorities are yet to complete a non-controversial registration of liberation war veterans. Successive regimes failed to prepare a genuine list of veterans. Letʼs not discuss the total number of genocide victims — researchers claim the number could be higher than 3 million. Tens of thousands of infants and elderly people died of cholera and diarrhoeal disease in refugee camps. Bangladesh has had seven governments since Mujibʼs. Not one took up the issues of 1971 seriously. Political historian Mohiuddin Ahmad quoted a Liberation War poster: “Banglar Hindu, Banglar Christian, Banglar Buddhist, Banglar Musalman, Amra shobai Bangalee (Bengali Hindus, Christians, Buddists, Muslims — we are all Bengalis).”([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| − | , (Manipur Sahitya | + | |
| − | Parishad. Imphal), 1997, 9 -1
| + | He added, “If I knew Islamism would triumph over secularism, pluralism and tolerance, I would not have joined Mukti Bahini to liberate the country.”([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| | + | |
| | + | August 5, 2024 marked the end of Sheikh Hasina's reign as she finally bowed to the same people's power that had once brought her to the office of Bangladesh prime minister. ([https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/we-won-the-war-but-was-bangladesh-liberated/articleshow/88149587.cms Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024]) |
| | + | |
| | + | |
| | + | ''' The writer is an independent journalist and columnist based in Bangladesh ''' |
| | + | |
| | + | [[Category:Pages with broken file links|TESTTESTTESTTEST |
| | + | TEST]] |
| | + | |
| | + | [[Category:Pages with broken file links|TESTTESTTESTTESTTEST |
| | + | TEST]] |
India and Pakistan were partitioned once, in 1947. But Bangladesh was partitioned thrice — 1905, 1947 and 1971. The contentious theory of the origins of Bangladesh is that it goes back to 1905, when the British Viceroy of India Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal. Indian nationalists and the intellectuals of Bengal vehemently opposed it. The seeds of Bengali nationalism had been sown. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
When the two-nation theory was floated, the name for the new homeland for Muslims, Pakistan, was suggested by a young Britain-educated lawyer Choudhary Rahmat Ali in 1933. P for Punjab, A for Afghan province (now KhyberPakhtunkhwa), K for Kashmir, I for Indus, S for Sindh, and ʻstanʼ for Balochistan. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
East Bengal found no mention. It angered the revolutionaries of Bengal. In 1940, fiery Bengal politician AK Fazlul Huq proposed the Lahore Resolution on behalf of the All India Muslim League — it called for independent states of Muslims in India — and nationalists began imagining an independent East Bengal. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
By the 1960s, it had turned into a movement. Bangabandhu (friend of Bangladesh) Mujib, incarcerated on and off, was sent off to jail again in 1968 in the infamous ʻAgartala Conspiracyʼ case. Anger spilled onto the streets and spread to the rest of Pakistan, with violent student protests against Pakistanʼs military junta in 1969. The anti-government agitation ousted the decade-long military dictatorship of General Ayub Khan. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
Mujib won a landslide victory in the first ever general elections in December 1970. He was poised to be the head of the government of Pakistan. Three months later, opposition leaders from the provinces of Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and the North West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) pledged allegiance to Mujibʼs Six-Point Political Agenda, which sought regional autonomy for the provinces in Pakistan. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
Between Mujib winning and this agenda being accepted by political leaders, General Khadim Hussain Raja, commander of the Eastern Command, planned Operation Blitz. It would mean suspension of all political activities and a return to military rule. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
The armed forces of Pakistan would be allowed to move against “defiant political leaders” and take them into “protective custody”. But Lieutenant General Yaqub Khan, who was chief of general staff of the Eastern Command, and Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan, who was governor of East Pakistan, scuttled the plan. Not for long, though. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
The frustrated General Yahya Khan, president of Pakistan, ousted both Khan and Ahsan. Later, General Raja was also shown the door. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
Weeks before the genocidal campaign of March 25, 1971, codenamed Operation Searchlight, most officers and soldiers of the East Bengal Regiment and border guards East Pakistan Rifles revolted. The rebel officers and soldiers along with hundreds of border guard troops and policemen crossed into India, with fire cover from the Indian Border Security Force shielding them. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
The rebel officers held a crucial meeting on April 12 at Teliapara in Sylhet — the Mukti Bahini (Bangladesh Liberation Force) was formed under the command of Colonel (later General) MAG Osmany. The Mukti Bahini decided it would go the guerrilla way, on the lines of what Vietnam rebels did, instead of conventional war. Thousands of students, youths and farmers, including women, joined the Mukti Bahini. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
No liberation war in the world was as decisive as that of Bangladesh. The barefoot, half-naked soldiers of the Mukti Bahini had faced off with the Islamic militia of Pakistan and emerged victorious. A triumphant Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the leader of the East Pakistan Awami League who led the resistance for an independent East Bengal, was released from prison in January 1972. When he took over the reins of the country, he had a huge task ahead of him. Corruption was raging, a famine was sweeping the nation and the ravages of over a decade of struggle had rent the people apart. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
He got to work but his compatriots betrayed him. He was assassinated in a military putsch on 15 August 1975 – when India was celebrating its Independence Day. Fifty years on, the secular ethos he died defending is under threat. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
[Mujib’s] daughter, Sheikh Hasina, who took over in 2009 after the country had seen three decades of autocratic regimes. The economy took off. She opened up the country to foreign investment from India, Japan, South Korea, the US, Turkey and European countries. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
Soon, Bangladesh became the second-largest exporter of readymade garments. Pharmaceutical products are its other big export, to more than 70 countries, and frozen fish and food to Europe, North America, the Middle East and Australasia. Bangladesh made big strides in meeting Sustainable Development Goals. Hasina has been elected Prime Minister thrice, holding office for 12 years. Her decision to take in more than a million Rohingya refugees who had fled Myanmar was appreciated globally. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
But the human rights record at home has been controversial. Sectarian violence against Hindus in mid-October of 2021 cast a shadow on the secular credentials of the country. Rights groups claim no perpetrator of sectarian violence against religious minorities, desecration of temples, arson and plunder faced criminal proceedings. Before the 2018 general elections, the authorities ignored human rights groups, civil society and journalistsʼ bodies to enact the Digital Security Act, which was believed to throttle freedom of expression. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
In three years since then, 1,516 cases have been filed under the law against 142 journalists, 35 teachers, 194 politicians and 67 students. None against Islamic evangelists who peddle hate speech online against womenʼs empowerment and elective democracy, and want a theocratic state. Nor against those uploading videos on YouTube demanding that the countryʼs flag be changed to a crescent and the national anthem be scrapped because a Hindu poet (Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore) wrote it. “It is a retreat from the commitments of 1971,” said acclaimed social scientist Prof Rehman Sobhan. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
The authorities are yet to complete a non-controversial registration of liberation war veterans. Successive regimes failed to prepare a genuine list of veterans. Letʼs not discuss the total number of genocide victims — researchers claim the number could be higher than 3 million. Tens of thousands of infants and elderly people died of cholera and diarrhoeal disease in refugee camps. Bangladesh has had seven governments since Mujibʼs. Not one took up the issues of 1971 seriously. Political historian Mohiuddin Ahmad quoted a Liberation War poster: “Banglar Hindu, Banglar Christian, Banglar Buddhist, Banglar Musalman, Amra shobai Bangalee (Bengali Hindus, Christians, Buddists, Muslims — we are all Bengalis).”(Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
He added, “If I knew Islamism would triumph over secularism, pluralism and tolerance, I would not have joined Mukti Bahini to liberate the country.”(Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
August 5, 2024 marked the end of Sheikh Hasina's reign as she finally bowed to the same people's power that had once brought her to the office of Bangladesh prime minister. (Samad, Saleem, ‘‘The Times of India’’ 2024)
