Reptilia: India
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Reptilia
Introduction
The reptilian fauna of India is very rich in its composition and constitutes a major component of the Indian vertebrate fauna, comprising three species of crocodiles, 32 species of turtles, 156 species of lizards and 237 species of snakes (See Table I). Reptiles are the most important group of predators, which maintain the natural balance, but very few people realise their importance. One of the reasons that people are wary of reptiles is that some snakes are poisonous, or a few crocodiles may at times turn into man eaters. Out of nearly 428 species of reptiles inhabiting India only the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and five kinds of snakes, namely, the common cobra (Naja naja), King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), the common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), the Russell's viper (Vipera russelli), and the saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus) are harmful. It is gratifying to note that more and more people are now interested to know about the reptiles, their natural history and role in the environment and to distinguish the poisonous snakes from the non¬poisonous varieties. It is hoped that the newly generated awareness of the variety and richness of our reptiles change the attitude towards them whose survival is of paramount importance in the delicate balance of nature.
Man and Reptiles
Most lizards feed on different kind of insects including the pest species. Snakes consume rats and mice. Snake venom is used in the production of antevenom -an anecdote for snake bite. Crocodiles and turtles feed on the dead and decaying matters thus keep the water free from pollution. Of all reptiles, turtles are of great economic benefit to man because several freshwater turtles form the staple diet in India. The sea turtle, Chelonia mydas has gained worldwide reputation because of its culinary importance. The Hawksbill, Eretmochelys imbricata is killed in large numbers for its beautiful shell.
Historical Resume
Genemi
The study of reptiles has been pioneered and persecuted in the early eighteenth century by the British Naturalists while serving in the then Indian Medical Service (IMS) 01" the Indian Forest Service (IPS). Their papers were published mostly by the Trustees of the British Museum, London.
The monumental work on Indian reptiles, published nearly a century ago are 'The Reptiles of British India' by Gunther (1864), 'Descriptive Catalogue of the Reptiles of British India' by Blyth (1876) and 'The Fauna of British India: Reptilia and Batrachia' by Boulenger (1890). Nevertheless, it was not until sometime later that information about these animals really began to accumulate in India and a few but serious workers started building up the edifice of the Indian Herpetology brick by brick. Smith's (1931, 1935, 1943) volumes stood the test of time and they constitute the standard work of reference on the subject.
Herpetologists have never been numerous in India. One reason is that this branch of natural history is never popular and another is the prevailing prejudice against creatures some of which are clammy and cold to touch, while some are poisonous. The lack of future openings for the herpetologists has also contributed to the utter negligence of the subject at the university level. However, there has been a dramatic upsurge in the studies in recent years. Group-wise Analysis
Crocodiles: The systematics and biology of the Indian crocodiles are fairly known by the work of Abercromby (1922), Barton (1929), Boulenget (op. cit.), Ferguson (1891), Gadow (1901) and Smith (1931).
Turtles: The foundation for the primary investigations on the chelonians (testudines) of India was fmnly laid by Gray (1825-1875) who has admirably combined the osteological features and taxonomic characters of these animals in this work. Annandale (1912-1915) carried out detailed investigations on the systematics and distribution of the tortoises and mud-turtles found in the inland waters of India. Chaudhuri (1912) and Prashad (1914) continued the work initiated by Annandale (op.cit.). Studies on sea turtles occuning in the coastal waters of India and their nesting grounds were neglected till Smith (1931) focussed our attention on these giants among the sea reptiles.
Lizards: The systematics and distribution of the saurian fauna of India has been worked out by earlier naturalists like Anderson (1871-1872), Guenther (1864-1875), Murray (1884-1887), Stoliczka (1870-1873) and Annandale (1904-1921). Among these, Annandale occupies a prominant place for his investigations based on the rich material deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Blyth (op. cit.) carried out his work on the lizards deposited at the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. Stoliczka (op. cit.) paid special attention to the lizards of Andaman and Nicobar Islands which harbour a variety of species more intimately connected with the Malaysian subregion. Hora (1924) published a series of papers on the lizards of the major families deposited in the collection's of the Zoological Survey of India. He also described the mechanics of the adhesive apparatus of some geckos and made a comparative study of the suction pads found on the toes of certain anurans. Beddome (1870-1978) has studied the lizards of the Western Ghats. Annandale and Blyth (op. cit.) should be credited with the discovery of several new skinks and agamids. Ganapati and Rajyalakshmi (1953) studied the binomics of the rare limbless skink, Barkudia insularis. Snakes: In the early seventeenth century, a scientific study on the structure, habits and life¬histories of the Indian snakes was' taken up by British naturalists. They were indefatigable in their researches in collection, figuring and describing these interesting reptiles of India and their work and collection provided the unshakable foundation for modem ophiology. Mahendra (1935) has presented a scholarly review of the history of Indian Ophiology.
The earliest scientific references to the Indian snakes available must be credited to Patrick Russell, who may most appropriately be hailed as the 'father of Indian Ophiology' He has for the frrst time distinguished the venomous from the nonvenomous snakes of India. His two volumes on Indian Snakes (1796, 1801-1809) bears his stamp of authority on the subject at the time. Fayrer (1874) carried out detailed investigations on the physiology of venom of Indian snakes. Gunther (1864) set the trend for the future ophiological studies on the Indian serpents on scientific lines by publishing his major work on 'The Reptiles ofBritish India' George Albert Boulenger's classic work is familiar to the herpetologists of India and elsewhere. His major work entitled 'Fauna ofBritish India-Reptilia and B4trachia' (1890) set the course for modem ophiology of India. He prepared exhaustive keys for easy recognition of Indian snakes. Indian ophiologists owe a deep debt of gratitude to Beddome (1863-1886) for his work on the obscure uropelti~ snakes of South Indian hills. Wall literally domina,led the field of Indian ophiology for an uninterrupted period of 2S years in early twentieth century.
His major contributions are 'The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British Dominions' (1928), and 'A popular Treatise on the common Indian Snakes' (1905¬1919). Among the early Indian herpetologists devoted to the study of snakes, Mahendra and Gharpurey stand out. Mahendra (1939) has contributed towards a better and clear understanding of the zoogeographical distribution of Indian Snakes and their similarities with the fauna of'the neighbouring countries in the subcontinent. It was Colonel Gharpurey (1935) -a medical man turned Ophiologist -who attempted for the first time in India to dispel the ignorance and superstitions woven around the Indian snakes by writing a popular book entitled 'Snakes of India'.
Studies from Different Environs
Investigations on the reptiles of India have for a long time been concentrated on survey, identification and publication of the taxonomic accounts of the species recorded. ZSI, which is a repository of the vast assemblage of the ophidian collections from all over the subcontinent provides excellent opportunities for tax.onomic studies.
Taking advantage of the rich National Zoological collection ~oused in the ZSI and the material obtained from the exploratory surveys carried out from time to time in the nook and corner of the country, specialists continue to publish their findings. With the setting up of the biosphere reserves and declaration of some reserve forests as conservation areas, the last one and a half decades have seen an upsurge in ecological work on Indian reptiles. While continuing the routine survey work the specialists of the ZSI and those associated with the other organisations like the Bombay Natural History Society have been paying serious attention to the reptiles of the Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks and Biosphere Reserves. Studies have be'en completed by the scientists of ZSI on the reptile fauna of West Bengal, Orissa, Goa, Rajasthan, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Tamil Nadu.
Likewise, the studies on the reptiles occurring in the Rajaji National Park. Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, Kalakaddu Hills of Tamil Nadu have been completed. The reptile fauna of the Chilka Lake has been investigated and the study completed. Though a lot of work has been done on the reptilian fauna of India, yet a wide area remains to be investigated. There is still scope to study the reptilian fauna of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Manipur in the Eastern Himalaya, Telangana and Rayalaseema regions of Andhra Pradesh, Marthwada area in Maharashtra and the various hill ranges comprising the Eastern Ghats. Likewise, the reptile fauna of the estuaries and mangroves needs special attention. The turtle fauna of the peninsular rivers is little known. The systematics and biology of the sea snakes occurring in the waters of India are far from complete.
Estimation of Taxa
India's reptile fauna is rich, varied and unique. A great number of them are endemic and relict forms. As Blanford (1901) remarked, there are a few, if any, regions on the earth's surface that exceed in reptile fauna than of India in area of interest Two regions namely, the Eastern Himalaya and the Western Ghats are herpetologically rich areas. The reptile fauna of India is largely dominated by Indo-Chinese element. Some 428 species of reptiles belonging to 137 genera and 26 families occur in India. A group¬wise critical estimation of the taxa is discussed below. TABLE -1 A brief synopsis of the dasslfication and number of species of the living reptiles In India Family No. of No. of genera species Crocodilia (Crocodiles) Testudines (Turtles and tortoises) Squamata
Animal Resources ofIndia Order Family No. of No. of genera species
Suborder Sauria (Lizards) Suborder Serpentes (Snakes) Agamidae Chameleonidae Scincidae Dibamidae Lacertidae Anguidae Vamnidae Typhlopidae Uropeltidae Xenopeltidae Boidae Acrochordidae Colubridae Dasypeltidae Elapidae Hydrophiidae Viperidae Crotalidae
Crocodiles
Gharial: Family Gavialidae. This is a monotypic family. The Gangetic gharial or gavial, Gavialis gangeticus inhabits the Ganga and its tributaries in the north and extends as far south as Mahanadi in Orissa. It is one of the most endangered reptiles in the world.
Crocodiles: Family Crocodylidae. The family is represented in India by two species namely the Muggar, Crocodylus palustris, and the Saltwater Crocodile, Crocodylus porusus. The mugger is widely distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent whereas the saltwater crocodile is widely distributed in southern Asia. In India, it is a rare species as it is confined to parts of the east coast of the mainland and to the Bay Islands.
Turtles and Tortoises
Sea turtles: Families Dcrmochelyidae and Cheloniidae. Five species of marine turtles are found in coastal waters of India. Of these, the Leatherback sea tutle, Dermochelys coriacea is the sole representative of the family Dermochelyidae and is a rare species. The remaining four species namely the Green turtle (Chelonia mydas), the Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), the Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), and the Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) are contained in a single family, Cheloniidae. Barring the loggerhead turtles, all the other forms nest on our coasts. All the sea turtles are listed as species threatened with extinction and declared as protected species.
Freshwater turtles: Family Emydidae. Seventeen species of freshwater turtles classified in seven genera namely, Batagur, Hardella, Kachuga, Geoclemys. eyclemys, Heosemys, and Melanochelys occur in India. Most of the emydid turtles are aquatic or semiaquatic.
The mono typic genus Batagur represented by its type species, Batagur baska, is economically important for its flesh and eggs. It is found in the estuaries of the Sunderban and is a rare turtle. The Brahminy river turtle, Hardella thurgi inhabits the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus river systems. Six species of Kachuga occur in India and Burma. All these turtles are used for food and considerally exploited. The Spotted pond turtle, Geoclemys hamiltoni occurs in the Ganga and Indus river systems.
The Khasi hill tortoise, Cyclemys dentata and the Assam freshwater tortoise, Cyclemys mouhoti are Indo-Chinese representatives extending their range to the eastern India. The Kerala forest turtle, Heosemys silvatica is a rare species which has recently been collected since its original discovery in 1911. It is endemic to India. "The genus Melanochelys, which ranges from India to Japan and the Malayan archipelago, has five representatives in India. These are the three keeled tortoise, Melanochelys tricarinata, the snail-eating turtle, Melanochelys trijuga trijuga, the black-necked twtIe, Melanochelys trijuga coronata and Melanochelys trijuga indopeninsularis and Melanochelys trijuga thermalis. Of these, M. tricarinata, M. trijuga trijuga, and M. t. coronata are endemic to India.
Land tortoises: Family Testudinidae. There are four land tortoises in India, all placed in the genus Geochelone. The Indian starred tortoise, Geochelqne elegans occqrs throughout central and southern India and also extends to the east in Orissa and the west in Pakistan. The Burmese elongated tortoise, Geochelone elongata is an Indo-Chinese form occurring in northeastern India. The Burmese brown tortoise, Geochelone emys is a giant among the Asian land tortoises and is confined to the hills of eastern India and southeastern Asia. The Travancore tortoise, Geochelone travancorica is endemic to India. It is found mainly in the hills of southern Kerala and Coorg (Kamataka).
Flap-shelled turtles: Family Trionychidae. The flapshells or softshells include three genera; viz. Lissemys, Trionyx, and Chitra represented by five species. The Gangetic softshell, Trionyx gangeticus is the common twtIe of the Ganges, Indus and Mahanadi river systems. The Peninsular softshell, Trionyx leithi is a river turtle of the Gangetic system but is also found in the rivers of peninsular India. A little known but pretty trionychid is the Peacock softshell, Trionyx hurum which inhabits the lower reaches of the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Indus rivers. It is endemic to India. The genus Lissemys ~ncludes two forms, Lissemys punctata punctata and L. p. granosa. The Chitra softshell, Chitra indica is a monotypic species of the genus Chitra and is found in the Gangetic and Indus river systems of India, Nepal and Pakistan. Lizards
Geckos: Family Gekkonidae. Some 54 species contained under 14 genera namely, Eubleparis, Teratolepis, Stenodactylus, Cyrtodactylus, Cnemaspis, Calodactylodes, Dravidogecko, Hemidactylus, Hemiphyllodactyius, Gekko, Ptychozoon, Phelsuma, Gehyra, and Lophopolis are known. The Andaman Day Green Gecko, Phelsuma andamanensis is restricted to the Andamans. Another interesting gecko of Indo-Malayan origin is the Flying ge~ko, Ptychozoon kuhli which is restricted to the Nicobar Islands. The genus Cnemaspis, comprising about 11 species, is an assemblage of dwarfed forest geckos, e~demic to the hills of southern India. The Golden tree gecko, Calodactylodes sureus is a mono typic form and is another rare Indian gecko found in the Eastern Ghats. Another monotypic form found in the Western Ghats is the southern forest gecko, Dravidogeck anamallensis.
Agamids: Family Agamidae. The agamid lizards of India are known by 43 species in fourteen genera namely, Draco, Sitana, Otocryptis, Ptyctolaemus, Goniocephalus, Mictopholis, Oriocalotes, Japalura, Salea, Caloles, Psammophilus, Agama, Phrynocephalus. and Uromastix.
The genus Draco represents the Indo-Chinese element in the reptile fauna of India. It includes the two so-called "Flying dragons", Draco norvilli found in Assam and Draco dussumiani of South India. The Earless lizard, Otocryptis beddomii is found in the Western Ghats and is endemic to India The genus Salea comprises the hill species, Salea horsfieldi and Salea anamallayana both of which are endemic to India. Another genus encJemic to India is Psammophilus which includes two species of rock lizards found in the peninsular India. The Spiny-tailed lizard, Uromastix hardwickii of the arid tracts of northwestern India is• an endangered species as it is much sought after for its flesh and oil.
Chameleons: Family Chamaeleonidae. The Indian Chameleon, Chameleo zeylanicus is the sole representative of the family which is centered in Africa.
Skinks: Family Scincidae. The family of skioks is composed of 44 species distributed in 12 genera namely, Dasia, Sphenomorphus, Chalcides, Scincella, Riopa, Ablepharus, Ristella, Mabuya, Eumaces, Ophiomorus, Barkudia and Sepsophis. A great majority of the Indian skinks are migrants from Vietnam while a few are restricted to India. The genus Ristella comprising 4 species, is confmed to the moist jungles of the Western Ghats. The genera Barkudia and Sepsophis are represented by one species each, viz. Barkudia insularis &nd Sepsophis punctatus both of which are exceedingly mre and endemic to India.
Worm Lizards: Family Dibamidae. The glassy-scaled Indian Worm Lizard, Dibamus novae¬guineae is the only representative of the family in India. It is a rare species of Indo-Chinese origin and is found from the Nicobars to New Guinea.
Lacertids: Family Lacertidae. This family is an assemblage of typical lizards known by 8 species contained in 5 genera namely, Acanthodactylus, Cabrita, Eremias, Ophisops and Takydromus. The genus Cahrita comprises two species and is endemic to India. Another snake¬eyed lacertid endemic to India is Ophisops beddomei.
Glass-snake Lizards: Family Anguidae. The Burmese glass snake, 0 phisaurus gracilis is the sole representative of the family Anguidae in India. It is found in and around Darjiling (West Bengal) and the Khasi Hills, Meghalaya
Monitor Lizards: Family Varanidae. Four species of monitor lizards comprising the single genus Varanus are found in India They are the Common Indian monitor, Varanus bengalensis, the yellow monitor, Varanusflavescens, the Desert monitor, Varanus griseus, and the Water monitor, Varanus salva tor. Besides the Indian subcontinent, the monitor lizards are also found in Africa, Australia and the East Indies. These giant lizards are much endangered as they are relentlessly hunted for their palatable flesh and valuable skin. All the Indian monitor lizards are protected species. Snakes
Blind Snakes: Family Typhlopidae. There are 16 species contained in 2 genera namely, Ramphotyphlops and Typhlops. The largest blind snake of the Orient is th6 Beaked blind snake, Typhlops acutus which is endemic to India. Of the 16 species known to occur in India, the status of several forms is presently in doubt.
Shieldtails or Rough-tailed Snakes: Family Uropeltidae. This is a family of burrowing snakes restricted entirely to the mountains and foothills of southern India. There are 33 species distributed in seven genera namely, Melanophidium, Brachyophidium, Teretrurus, Platyplectrurus, Plectrurus. Uropeltis, and Rhinophis, of which four genera are endemic to India. The uropeltid snakes are under heavy pressure because of the rapid destruction of their habitat
Rainbow or Sunbeam Snakes: Family Xenopeltidae. The family is known by a monotypic genus, namely Xenopeltis represented by its type species, Xenopeltis unicolor. This iridescent earth snake of Indo-Chinese origin, is known only from the Andamans. It is a rare snake.
Sand boas and Pythons: Family Boidae. Two species each of Eryx (sand boas) and Python (giant constrictors) make up the family Boidae in India. The Reticulate python which represents the Indo-Malayan element, is found in the Nicobar Islands. Both the pythons found in India are endangered and declared as protected species.
Wart Snakes: Family Acrochordidae. The family is represented by a single species, Chersydrus granulatus which inhabits the estuaries. The Indian wart snake is exceedingly common in the Chilka Lake (Orissa).
Colubrids: Family Colubridae. About 130 species distributed in as many as 39 genera, comprise the•huge family ofCol ubri dae which is.widely•distributed in the country in diversified habitats, exhibiting marvellous adaptations. Some are terrestrial, some are fossorial, while others are aquatic. Of the 39 genera known, two genera namely Trachischium (5 spp.) and Xylophis (2 spp) are endemic to India. The Oriental rat•snake, Ptya,s mucosus is hunted for its skin despite its proven capabilities as a destroyer of rats.
Egg-eating snakes: Family Dasypeltidae. The rare Indian egg-eater, Elachistodon westermanni represents the family in India. It is restricted to northern West Bengal and the adjoining territory of Bihar.
Venomous snakes: The four families, Elapidae (cobras, kraits, and Coral snakes), Hydrophiidae (Sea snakes), Viperidae (Pitless or True vipers) and Crotalidae (Pit vipers) comprise the venomous snakes of India.
Cobras, Kraits, and Coral Snakes: Family Elapidae. This is a family comprising four genera namely, Naja (cobras),Bungarus (kraits), Calliophis (Coral snakes), and Ophiophagus (King Cobra). The King Cobra or Hamadryad, Ophiophagus hannah is the largest venomous snake in the world. It is a rather rare snake in India being confined to a few pockets in the Himalayan foothills, dense jungles of Orissa, the rainfore~ts of Western Ghats and the Andamans.
Sea Snakes.\ Family Hydrophiidae. Some 20 species of these highly venomous snakes occur in the coastal waters of India comprising 8 genera namely, Laticauda, Praescutata, Kerilia, Enhydrina, Hydrophis, Lapemis, Microcephalophis, and Palamis. This family is badly in need of revision.
True Vipers: Family Viperidae. This family is represented by three well known vipers namely, Russel's Viper (Vipers russelli), Saw-scaled Viper(Echis carinatus), and Leventine Viper (Vipera lebetina). The Leventine Viper is Testricted to the Western Himalaya.
Pit Vippers: Family Crotalidae. About 16 species representing three genera namely, Hypnale, Agkistrodon, and Trimeresurus are found in the hills and forests of India, mainly confined to the Western Ghats and the Eastern Himalaya. They are characterised by a sensory pit present on each side of the face.
Group-wise Analysis of Studies on Indian Reptiles
Crocodiles
The status of the Indian Crocodiles was so grave during the early 1970s that all the three species were notified as critically endangered species and of these, the gharial slated for immediate extinction. The Government of India sought the advice and technical expertise of the FAD and UNDP which resulted in the conservation programme for saving the crocodiles from imminent extinction. In ZSI, Biswas (1970) carried out a preliminary survey of the crocodiles along the stretch of the Kosi river in Bihar with special attention to the status of the then most critically endangered gharial. As a result of the investigations carried out by Bustard (FAo, 1975) and his band of dedicated pupils like Singh (1978), Basu (1980) and Choudhury (1979), the Centre has selected areas found suitable for the• captive breeding and management of the crocodiles. The Government of India has also set up the Crocodile Breeding and Management Training Institute at Hyderabad. Whitaker (1975) has established the Madras Crocodile Bank -the only one of its kind in India -for captive breeding and mangement of the Indian crocodiles.
It can now safely be assumed that the crocodiles in India are assured of a fresh lease of life and saved from extinction. The recent book entitled 'Crocodiles' by Steel (1990) is an interesting contribution and decidedly a popular account of these animals of the world.
Turtles And Tortoises
Sea turtles : The worldwide interest in the sea turrt1es, created largely due to the efforts of the mCN and WWF, has provided the required impetus to the Government of India to initiate studies on the nesting biology of these giant marine reptiles. The project to study and conserve the Olive Ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) has yielded results and led to country-wide conservation of the nesting ground~ located in remote coastal zones. Bhaskar (1979) has reported on the new resting sites for the sea twtles emerging on our beaches. Murthy (1979) prepared a paper on the sea turtles of India. It is matter of great interest, herpetologically speaking, to learn that India con~titutes a major breeding ground for the Olive Ridley sea turtle as some 150,000 females emerge on the Gahinnatha beach in Orissa every year to lay eggs.
Freshwater turtles and tortoises : After a lull of nearly two decades since the publication of Smith's (1931) work on Indian testudines, Acharji (1955) renewed the interest in the group by surveying the chelonians of the Gangetic river system. Jayaram (1949, 1974) discussed the distribution of the chelonians of India and their afrmities with Malaysian fauna.
Lizards
The studies on Indian lizards was pursued mainly by the scientists of the ZSI notably, Biswas and Sanyal (1977), Tiwari and Sharma (1971), and Sharma (1970-1972). Mahendra (1936-1950) and his pupils in the Academy of Zoology, Agra have made invaluable contributions dealing with the anatomy and musculature of Indian lizards. Murthy (1985) has published a field guide to the lizards of the Western Ghats. Sharma (1980-1984) has described as many as six lizards as new to science.
Snakes
Smith's third volume in the Fauna of British India series (1943) on Indian snakes and his earlier classical monograph on the sea snakes (1926), are still the main source of references on the subject Underwood (1947-1948) published good accounts on the snakes ofPune, Maharashtra and Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh. Constable (1949) published an authentic work on Indian snakes based on the material deposited in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard, USA.
Deoras (1965) published a book on Indian Snakes aimed for a layman. Scientists of the Zoological Survy of India like Acharji and Kripalani (1951), Tiwari (1973), Biswas and Sanyal (1975-1980), Shanna (1971¬1977) and Murthy (1972-1987) made significant contributions. Of these the last mentioned three specialists are still active in the field, contributing to the growth of our knowledge on Indian snakes. Whitaker (1969-1978), besides publishing several notes, brought out a book on the common snakes of India. J. C. Daniel and the team of his associates in the Bombay "Natural History Society are publishing their occasional findings in their Society's journal.
Current Studies
Crocodiles
The crocodile sanctuaries set up in the several Stat~ of India notab~y Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu are functioning effectively. These also have crocodile rearing projects. The Nandankanan Biological Park in Orissa continues to be an efficient Crocodile Management Centre. The Nehru Zoological Park in Hyderabad is also engaged in 'rearing and release' of the gharial and the mugger.
Turtles and Tortoises
Biswas (1983) conducted a detailed survey of the nesting behaviour of the Olive Ridley sea turle on the Orissa coast besides undertaking a preliminary survey of the sea turtles of the Andhra coast. Murthy (1983) carried out a status survey of the sea turtles nesting on the sandy coasts of some
villages off Kakinada Port in Andhra Pradesh and is still continuing the line of work. The status of turtles inhabiting the River Godavary in AndhraPradesh has also been investigated by Murthy. The results of his investigation are under documentation. Murthy (1985-1987) has also studied the systematics of the turtle fauna of some of the conservation areas like the Kalakad Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu. Raj Tilak and Husain (1989) have recently reported on the turtles and tortoises found in the Raj~ai National Park, Uttar Pradesh.
Lizards
Shanna has written a handbook on the Indian lizards whose systematics and biology are still poorly known. Murthy's 'Fieldbook of Indian Lizards' is also in the press. Murthy is paying special attention to the lizards of the various districts of Tamil Nadu accumulated as a result ofthe mopping survey programme besides concentrating on the saurian fauna of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
Snakes
Shanna has undertaken a thorough review of the systematics and biology of the Indian snakes which may probably pave the way for a revised volume in the Fauna of India series. The proceedings of the training programme on sn~es and human welfare conducted early this year (1990) by the ZSI, Jodhpur are to be brought out in a handy volume for the benefit of the students of Indian Ophiology. Murthy's "Illustrated Guide to the snakes of the Western Ghat", has been published. Murthy has described the dangerous land and sea snakes that the defence personnel are likely to encounter in his forthcoming work entitled 'A pictorial book of the dangerous reptiles of India for the defence personnel' Sanyal has given art in-depth account of the snake fauna of Orissa to be published in the Records of the ZSI.
Expertise India
In ZSI
R. C. Shanna, Desert Regional Station, ZSI, Pataudi House, Paota Lines, Jodhpur 342 006, Rajasthan. T. S. N. Murthy. Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Madras 600028. D. P. Sanyal, Zoological Survey•oflndia, 27, Jawaharlal Nehru Road, Calcutta 700 016. S. K. Talukdar, Zoological Survey of India, 27. Jawharlal Nehru Road, Calcutta 700 016. R. Mathew. Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Fruit Garden, Risa Colony, Shillong (Meghalaya) Pin 793 003.
Elsewhere
J. C. Daniel, Curator. Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023. Romulus Whitaker, Director, Madras Crocodile Bank, P.O. Perur, Chingleput District, Tamil Nadu, Pin 603 104. M. V. Rajendran, 31, Devaloga Street, Palayamkottai, Tirunelveli 627 002, Tamil Nadu. M. Rajagopalan Scientist, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Madras Research Centre. 141, Marahsll Road, Egmore, Madras 600 008. 1.Rao, Assistant Professor, Jiwaji University, School of Zoology, Gwalior 474 011, Madhya Pradesh. 2.C. Mahendra, The Academy of Zoology, Khandari Road, Agra 2.
Satish Bhaskar, C/o. Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, P.O. Perur, Chingleput District, Tamil Nadu. B. C. Choudhury, Widllife Institute of India, F ..R.I. Campus, P.O. New Forest, Debra Dun 248 006, Uttar Pradesh. Sudhakar Kar, Crocodile Project, Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, 315, Kharbel Nagar, Bhuvaneswar 751 001, Orissa. P. J. Dcoras, Hoffkins Institute, Parel, Bombay. Indraneil Das, Madras, Crocodile Bank Trust, P.O. Perur Pin 603 104, Chingleput District, Tamil Nadu. P. L. Duda, Department of Bio-Sciences University of Jammu, Canal Road, Jammu 180001. L. N. Acharjyo, Nandankanan Biologial Park, P.O. Barang 754 005, District Cuttack, Orissa. Priyamvada Mohanty-Hejmadi, Department of Zoology, Vani Vihar, UtIcal University, Bhuvaneswar 751 004. Orissa. M. V. Subba Rao, Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Waltair. Raju Vyas, Sayaji Baug Zoo, Baroda 390 018, Gujarat. Anil Khairae, Indian Herpetological Society, "Ushant", Poona-Satara Road, Poona 411 009, Maharashtra. Sushil K. Dutta, Zo<?logy Department, UtIcal University, Bhuvaneshwar 751 004, Orissa. C. S. Kar, Forest Department Govt. of Orissa, Bhuvaneshwar. Shekar Dattatre, Plot 40, 3rd East Street, Tiruvanmiyur, Madras 600 041. S. Biswas, C/o. Zoological Survey of India, •'M' Block New Alipore, Calcutta 700 053. B. D. Shanna, Mountain Eco-Conservation and Wildlife Society of India, P.O. Box 18, Jammu 180 001., J.K. Lala A. K. Singh, Similipal Tiger Reserve, Khairi-Jashipur, Orissa 757 091. Tej Prakash Vyas, Environmental Conservation Society, L-176, Housing Board Colony, Dhar 454001, Madhya Pradesh. M. R. Yadav, Turtle Research and Conservation Centre, 3/16, Murai Tola, Faizabad 224 123, Uttar Pradesh.
Abroad
John (Jack) G. Frazier, Universidad Nacional, Apartado 1350, Heredia 3000, Costa Rica. Robert F. Inger, Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive. Chicago, Illinois 60605, U.S.A. Walter Auffenberg, The Florida State Museum, Department of Natural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainsevelle 326 U.S.A. . Brain Groombridge, IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 (C) Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, United Kingdom. Herndon, G. Dowling, New York University, New York, U.S.A. Peter C. H. Pritchard, Science &Research, Florida Audubon Society, 1101, Audubon Way, Maitland, Florida 32751, U.S.A. Sherman A. Minton JR, Indians University School of Medicine, 635, Barnhill Drive, Indianapolis, Indian 46202, U.S .A. Edward O. Moll, Department of Zoology, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, Illinois 61920, U.S.A. Alan E. Leviton, California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California 94118, U.S.A. Carl Gans, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A. H. Robert Bustard, Aiyth, Perthshire, Scotland Garth Underwood, Dept. of Biology, London City College Poly technique, London, U.K. Roger Conant, Department of Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, U.S.A.
Selected References
Constable, J. D. 1949. Reptiles from the Indian peninsula in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. Bull. Mus. compo zooI. Harv. Univ., 103 : 59-160. Daniel, J. C. 1983. The Book ofIndian Reptiles. Bombay Natural History Society. Deoras, P. J. 1965. Snakes ofIndia. New Delhi: National Book Trust. Murthy, T. S. N. 1985. A field guide to the lizards of Western Ghats. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Dcc. Paper, (72). Murthy, T. S. N. 1986. The Snakes Boom ofIndia. Debra Dun: International Book Distributors. Smith, M. A. 1931. The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia -Loricata, Testudines. 1 : xxviii + 185 pp. London: Taylor and Francis. Smith, M. A. 1935. The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia -Sauria. 2 : xiii + 440 pp. London: Taylor and Francis. Smith, M. A. 1943. The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia -Serpentes 3 : xii + 583 pp., London : Taylor and Francis. Tikader, B. K. &Sharma, R. C. 1985. Handbook of Indian Testudines. xii + 152 pp. Calcutta : Zoological Survey of India. Whitaker, Romulus, 1978. Common Indian Snakes -A Field guide. xiv + 154 pp. New Delhi: Macmillan Company of India Ltd.
