Kaira District , 1908

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This article has been extracted from THE IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF INDIA , 1908. OXFORD, AT THE CLARENDON PRESS.

Note: National, provincial and district boundaries have changed considerably since 1908. Typically, old states, ‘divisions’ and districts have been broken into smaller units, and many tahsils upgraded to districts. Some units have since been renamed. Therefore, this article is being posted mainly for its historical value.

Kaira District

Kheda — District in the Northern Division of the Bombay Presidency, lying between 22 deghree 14' and 23 degree 7' N. and 72 degree 30' and 73 degree 23' E., with an area of 1,595 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Ahmadabad District, Mahl Kantha, and the small State of Balasinor in the Rewa Kantha Agency ; on the west by Ahmadabad District and the State of Cambay ; on the south and east by the river Mahl and the GaikwaVs territory (Baroda). The breadth of the District varies from 25 to 40 miles.

Physical aspects

Excepting a small corner of hilly ground near its northern -boundary, and in the south-east and south, where the land along the Mahl is furrowed into deep ravines, Kaira forms one unbroken plain sloping gently towards the south-west The north and north- east portions are dotted with patches of rich rice land, broken by untilled tracts of low brushwood.

The centre of the District, called the eharotar, or 'goodly’ land, is very fertile and highly cultivated ; the luxuriant fields are surrounded by high-growing hedges, and the whole country is clothed with clusters of large shapely trees. Westward, this belt of rich vegetation passes into a bare though well-cultivated tract of rice land, growing more barren and open to the south till it reaches the maritime belt, whitened by a salt-like crust, on the Gulf of Cambay.

The Mahi, the largest river of Kaira, and the third in importance of the Gujarat rivers, flows for nearly ioo miles along the east, south-east, and south boundary of the District. This ioo miles may be divided into three sections : first a stretch of 40 miles over a rough and rocky bed, then 10 miles of a still stream with a sandy bed, and lastly 45 miles of a tidal river. The fords in the District are at Kavi, Dehvan, Gajna, Khanpur, and Ometa.

At Verakhandi, the limit of the flow of the tide, the bed is in the dry season 500 yards wide, the stream 120 yards, and the average depth 1 ½ feet. A small ' bore ' rises in the estuary at springs and dashes itself on the Dehvan. The Sabarmati, the fourth largest river in Gujarat, flows for 14 miles along the western boundary, and is much used for irrigation. The Shedhi, the chief drainage line of the plain between the Mahl and the Sabarmati, being charged with soda, is not adapted for irrigation. The Khari, one of five smaller streams, waters a large area by means of canals and sluices, but fails at the end of the rice season, that is to say about November.

The District has not yet been geologically surveyed in any detail. The Kaira plain is, with the exception of the few sandy hills and rocks in Kapadvanj and Thasra, a deep bed of alluvium, most of it the debris of the gneiss and metamorphic limestones of the Aravalli Hills. In the raised tract along the banks of the Mahi, water is found only at a depth of from 80 to no feet. Away from the river, wells have their springs from 40 to 60 feet deep, rising through strata of earth mixed with lime- stone nodules, alternating with sand overlying layers of limestone.

From this limestone, when tapped, water rises to within 25 feet of the surface. The age of these strata is not known. They may be Tertiary or Cretaceous. Formerly, in parts of the District, water was to be found at a higher level. Many old wells are said to have been made useless by the earthquake of 18 19, which lowered all the springs from 5 to 10 cubits.

In some cases deeper sinking has overcome the evil; in others, a fine stratum of quicksand makes farther cutting dangerous. The hot springs of Lasundra, 10 miles south-east of Kapadvanj, rise to the surface in ten or twelve cisterns, the hottest reaching a temperature of 1 1 5 . Like those at Tuva in Godhra, 20 miles to the south-east, and at Anaval, 150 miles south, the Lasundra springs are slightly sulphurous, and thought to be useful in skin diseases.

The District has no forests or forest lands, the trees either standing singly or in small groves. In the north the makua (Bassia latifotia), and in the south the mango and the limbdo or nim (Melia Azadirachta), are the commonest kinds, while the custard-apple, sitdphal (Anona squamosa), is abundant all over the District. The rdyan (Mimusops hexandra) the kanaj ( Ulmus integrifolia), the karanj or kaniji (Ponga- mia glabra), and the aduso (Ailanthus excelsa), also occur freely distributed.

Mangoes are sent in considerable quantities to Baroda, Ahmadabad, and Kathiawar. During the hot season the fleshy corolla of the mahud flower is eaten by the poorer classes and by cattle, and from it is distilled a favourite liquor. Mixed with whey, the berries of the rdyan form, during the hot season, the staple food of a large section of the Koll population.

Tigers and leopards, which haunted the bed of the Mahl till a few years ago, are now rarely heard of, owing to the spread of tillage and their pursuit by European sportsmen. Hyenas, jackals, foxes, wild hog, antelope, gazelle, and hares are common. Of game-birds, snipe, quail, and many species of duck abound; while geese, bustard, par- tridge, and florican may occasionally be shot. Poisonous snakes are common. Mahseer and other fresh-water fish are caught in the waters of the larger rivers.

To Europeans the climate is trying. From November to March the air is pleasant and bracing. By the people of the District the charoiar or central portion is considered healthy. The rainfall varies but slightly in different parts of the District. The annual fall is 38 inches in the Nadi£d, Borsad, and Anand s, while it averages about 34 inches over the whole District. The average temperature is 82 , the maxi- mum being 11 6° and the minimum 43 degree .

History

Kaira District is made up partly of lands acquired from the Peshwi in 1802 by the Treaty of Bassein, partly of territory transferred by the Gaikwar of Baroda in 1803 and 181 7. Rajputs reigned in Kaira from 746 to 1290, and, excepting perhaps Thasra and Kapadvanj, the District formed part of the directly managed portions of Anhilvada. At the end of the fourteenth century Kaira passed to the Muhammadan kings of Ahmadabad, and

• n *573 was transferred to the Mughals.

In 1720 the Marathas appeared, and from that time to the fall of Ahmad&b&d in 1752 the District was the scene of perpetual struggles between the Marathas and the Muhammadan viceroys. The Marathas were victorious, and in 1753 the District was shared between the Peshwa and the Gaikwar. Part of Kaira came into British possession in 1803, and the rest in 181 7.

Under the terms of the Treaty of Bassein (December 31, 1802), the Napad group of villages was handed over by the Peshwa. In 1803 the Gaikwar ceded Nadiad, Matar, and Mahudha, as well as the fort and town of Kaira, for the maintenance of troops supplied by the British Government. Again, by treaty dated November 6, 181 7, the Gaikwar ceded Mehmadabad, Allna, Thasra, Antroli, and half of the town and district of Petlad to provide for the payment of addi- tional troops. At the same time, Kapadvanj and Bhalaj were received in exchange for the district of Bijapur in Northern Gujarat.

The territories acquired in 1 803, together with Dholka, Dhandhuka, Rftnpur, and Gogha, which now form part of Ahmadabad District, remained in charge of the Resident at Baroda from the date of their cession till May, 1805. During this time a European Assistant and native officers administered, according to local usage, the police and justice of the country. In 1805 a Collector was appointed, with juris- diction over the ceded tracts, both those to the north of the Mahi and those to the west of the Gulf of Cam bay.

In the same year the town of Kaira was selected as a large military station. The increase in the British possessions consequent on the treaty of November, 181 7, necessitated fresh administrative arrangements. The territory north of the Mahi was, from January 1, 18 18, divided into the two Districts of Kaira and Ahmadabad. In 1830 Kapadvanj was included in Ahmad- abad, and Kaira became a sub-collectorate under the Collector of Ahmadabad.

In 1833 Ahmadabad and Kaira were again separated. Since then, more than once, villages have been transferred from one District to the other, and the original irregular groups and collections of villages have been gradually consolidated into seven s.

Throughout the District are Hindu and Musalman buildings of interest. The rauza of Mubarak Saiyid (died a. h. 966) at Sojale is one of the finest of the latter. Kapadvanj contains some buildings of great antiquity : a beautiful arch described by Forbes in his Rds Mala, a kund or basin of consecrated water, a mosque, and a well ; and an underground temple of Mahadeo which has recently been explored for the first time. It is also remarkable for a fine Jain temple recently built

In 1846 the population of Kaira District was returned at 566,513. By 1872 it had risen to 782,938. In 1881 the population was Population. 80 5, 00 5 , in l801 ,871,794; and in 1901, 716,332. The decrease of 18 per cent, during the last decade was due to the famine and cholera of 1899-1900. The District is divided into 7 talukas, with area and population (1 901) as given in the table on the next page.

The number of towns in the District in 1901 was 11, and of vil- lages 598. The chief towns are Nadiad, Kapadvanj, Kaira (the head-quarters), Anand, and Mehmadabad. Owing to the large fertile areas which the District comprises, it is the most thickly populated in the Presidency. The most populous s are Nadiad, Borsad, and Anand. GujaratI is the vernacular. Classified according to religion, Hindus in 1901 numbered 614,146, or 85 per cent of the total ; Mu- hammadans, 68,187, or 9 per cent. ; Christians, 25,210; Jains, 8,469 ; and Parsis, 209.

The following castes are of importance : Brahmans, 38,000 ; Vanls, 22,000 ; Rajputs, 21,000; Chamars, 13,000; Kunbis (agriculturists), 127,000; Kolis (agriculturists), 252,000; Dhers or Mahars, 21,000. The Muhammadans include r 6,000 Pathans and 10,000 Bohras.

The Lewa and Kadva Kunbis are the best farmers in the District, and a sober, peaceable, and industrious race. The Kunbis of certain villages are held in honour as descended from the leading men among the original settlers in Gujarat The Rajputs, with the exception of a few who, with the title of Thakur, still retain landed estates, have sunk into the mass of ordinary peasant proprietors. The Kolis number 252,000, or 35 per cent, of the total population. Idle and turbulent under native rule, they are now quiet, hard-working, and prosperous. Among Hindu low castes, the Dhers are distinguished for industry and good behaviour.

They formerly lived in comfort by weaving coarse cotton cloth, but the competition of the Bombay and local mills is now shutting them out of the market. Of the Musalman population, about one-third, under the name of Saiyids, Shaikhs, Pathans, and Mughals, represent the foreign conquerors of Gujarat. The remainder, called Momnas, Bohras, Tais, and Ghanchis, are the descendants of Hindus converted to Islam under the Ahmadabad kings. Musalmans of the first class, employed chiefly as cultivators or in Government service as police or messengers, are for the most part poor. Musalmans of the second class are artisans, chiefly weavers and oil-pressers, and are hard- working and well-to-do.

Most of the population is dependent on agriculture, which supports 67 per cent, of the total. General laboiir supports 4 per cent., and the remainder are distributed between commerce and trade, personal service, &c. Over 15,000 are engaged in cotton-weaving.

At the Census of 1901 the native Christian population of the District was returned at 25,131, showing an increase of no less than tenfold since 1891. This may to some extent be the result of conversions to Christianity during the famine; but it is noteworthy that the Salva- tion Army has been active in Kaira for some years, and that a large number of the Christians are Salvationists, mainly converted from the lower classes.

Besides the Salvation Army, the following missions are at work in the District : the Irish Presbyterian, with stations at Borsad and Anand, which maintains 2 Anglo-vernacular and 46 vernacular schools, 4 orphanages, and a hospital at Anand, and has settled 14 colonies of converts on waste land procured from Government; the Methodist Episcopal at Nadiid, which maintains 165 schools, an in- dustrial school, an orphanage, and a dispensary, and which under- took extensive relief operations in the famine of 1 900 ; the Christian Alliance in the Matar , which maintains 9 schools and an orphanage and industrial school at Kaira; and the Roman Catholic at Anand, which maintains 19 schools, an industrial school, and an orphanage and dispensary.

The Salvation Army maintains 112 schools and a well-equipped hospital at Anand, which is very popular among all classes. Khasivfidi, ' the beautiful garden,' in Borsad town was the first to show a leaning towards Christianity, two families having been con- verted there in 1847. There is an English church at Kaira known as St. George's Church, established about 1825.

Agriculture

The soil belongs to four classes : light, medium, black, and alluvial, with subordinate varieties. The light soil is the most common, varying in quality from the loose-grained yellow sand of the fields near the Sabarmati and the Mahl, to a rich lighter mould common in the central taluka and found to per- fection in the south-west corner of Matar. The medium soil is fairly well distributed over the whole District. The black soil of Kaira is poor and generally contains either soda or limestone. Alluvial soil or bhatha is found near the Vatrak river and is a rich garden mould.

The greater part of the land of the District is ryotwari (1,075 square miles, or 88 per cent of the total area), about 7 per cent, being held miles, or quit-rent tenure. The main statistics of cultivation in 1903-4 are shown in the table on the next page, in square miles.

The chief crops, with the area under each in square miles (1903-4), are: bajra (313), kodra (162), rice (115),jowar (91), and wheat (18). Cotton is grown in small patches (10 square miles). The finest tobacco in Western India is grown in Kaira, occupying 24 square miles, mostly in the Nadi&d, Borsad, and Anand tdlukas ; but the cul- tivators, though skilful in rearing the plant, know nothing of its prepara- tion for the European market. Two varieties of tobacco are grown, the talabdi or local plant and the khandeshi or plant introduced from Khandesh. An irrigated field yields twice as large a crop as a dry one.

About the beginning of July, as soon as the first rain has fallen, the seed is sown on a well-prepared plot of ground, and after about a month and a half the seedlings are ready for transplantation. The field is scored in squares by a heavy, long-toothed rake, and at each point of intersection a seedling is set. The plant takes about bxz. and a half months to ripen. As soon as it is ready, it is carefully examined, and divided into two classes, kalio and jardo ; the kalio is cut down, stalk and all, and laid out to dry ; the jardo is left a little longer, and then the leaves are stripped off the stem. A moth caterpillar is the chief enemy of the plant.

Tobacco-growing is a costly process, and can be undertaken only by substantial cultivators. It has been calcu- lated that the cost of growing an acre of plant is Rs. 270, and the profit Rs. no. Cotton is grown only from the local plant, and occupies every seventh furrow in fields sown with ordinary grain crops.

Several attempts have been made to improve the Kaira cotton, but without success. Indigo was once one of the chief exports from Gujarat, but by 1827 it had almost ceased to be produced. A later attempt to encourage the growth in Kaira was attended with failure. A Government silk garden was started in 1837, but was closed in 1847. The Nadiad Agricultural Association's small experimental farm has been removed to Kamta, and has practically been handed over to the department of Agriculture, which has enlarged its scope and is pro- viding new buildings.

Numerous experiments in the cultivation of tobacco and other staple crops of the District have been made. It has been ascertained in the course of these experiments that a better yield of tobacco is obtained by growing it continuously instead of in rotation, that deep tillage increases the out-turn, and that Sumatra tobacco cannot be grown. The desi or local tobacco stands first in quality and quantity, and the Belgaum varieties second. In the ten years ending 1903-4, a tota of 19.8 lakhs was advanced to cultivators under the Land Improvement and Agriculturists' Loans Acts, of which 7-7 lakhs was lent in 1 899-1 900, and 8-8 lakhs in 1 900-1.

Cattle are imported from Kathiawar and Kankrej in Northern Guja- rat. Some of the largest used to be bred in the District at Bhalaj, and many villages of the Nadiad are famous for their bullocks. Ponies are bred in the District, but they are not suitable for cavalry remounts. Two Government pony stallions are maintained by the Civil Veterinary department.

Of the total cultivated area of 1,131 square miles, 37 square miles, or 3 per cent., were irrigated in 1903-4. The chief sources of irriga- tion are n minor works, 10,886 wells, and 1,391 tanks. The wells most commonly in use are deep, shallow wells being found only in the Matar . The water is drawn up by bullocks in four leathern bags working simultaneously. The ponds are used for irrigating rice lands. After the close of the cold season few of them hold any large supply of water. The Khari sluice system irrigated nearly 8,800 acres in 1903-4. In 1902 large reservoirs were constructed at Goblaj, Tranja, Nagrama, and Vangroli by famine labour.

Iron ore was at one time worked in the neighbourhood of Kapad- vanj. In the bed of the Majam river, about 15 miles from Kapadvanj, are found varieties of agate and moss-stone. The bed of the Mahi contains masses and boulders of trap ; while on its upper course, on the Balasinor frontier, rock is plentiful, including trap, with occasional limestone, quartz, and granite.

Trade and communication

The opening of steam factories at Ahmadabad and at Nadiad has greatly reduced the demand for hand-spun cotton, once a staple. The water of the District is thought to be especially good for dyeing Purposes. Soap and glass are manufactured at Kapadvanj. A steam spinning-mill, established at Nadiad in 1876 at a cost of about 5 lakhs, has 14,568 spindles, which turn out over a million pounds of yarn, and employ 584 persons. Considerable quantities of coarse cloth for home con- sumption are woven in hand-looms by the lower castes of Hindus. In the larger towns calico printing is carried on by classes known as Bhavsars and Chhipas.

The chief exports are prints, grain, tobacco, butter, oil, and mahua flowers ; the chief imports are piece-goods, grocery, molasses, and dye- stuffs. Kaira is particularly noted for its ghi or clarified butter, the export of which is valued at 8 lakhs. The ghi when made is forced into large leathern bottles holding from 60 to 200 lb.

In 1884 there was only one made road in the District. There are now 166 miles of metalled and 19 of unmetalled roads. Of the former, 33 miles of Provincial roads and 123 miles of local board roads are maintained by the Public Works department. All the water- courses are bridged except the large rivers, and avenues of trees are maintained along 49 miles. New roads were constructed by famine labour in 1900 from Mehmadabad to Dakor and from Borsad to Agas railway station. The whole of the District is connected with Ahmad- abad city by metalled roads.

The main line of the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway passes through the District from north to south for 38 miles, and a branch line from Anand runs through the Pinch Mahals to Godhra, where it connects with the Godhra-Ratlara Railway, traversing the District for 34 miles. In 1890 another branch line was opened from Anand to Petlad in Baroda territory, and thence in 1 90 1 to Cambay town, thus bringing Kaira into close connexion with the sea. This line traverses the District for 6 miles. Ferries ply across the Mahi.

Famine

A severe famine took place in 1 791-2, when rain fell only once; in 18 r 3-4 there were only two showers of rain throughout the year; in 1825 the later rains failed, and remissions of land revenue to the amount of over 1 ½ lakhs were granted. On the other hand, the period 1814-22 was marked by heavy floods and rainfall that caused much damage to the country. In 1834 locusts ate up the crops, and remissions amounting to nearly 2 lakhs were sanctioned.

In 1837, 1868, and 1871 disastrous storms swept over the District. During the forty years 1836-76, though the rainfall had at times been scanty and the crops failed, no season of famine or even of general scarcity occurred in Kaira. Owing to the scanty rainfall in 1877 ( I 9 ,I 3 inches), there was a partial failure of crops, and the poorer people, especially in the Kapadvanj and Thasra s in the north-east, suffered some distress, which, however, did not leave behind serious results. In 1899 the monsoon failed and the District was visited by severe famine. In April of the following year nearly 85,000 persons, exclusive of 8,000 dependants, were on relief works, and 15,000 more received gratuitous relief. The number increased to 143,000 by July of the same year, excluding 13,000 dependants and 38,000 on gratuitous relief.

The latter reached a maximum of 113,000 in August. It is calculated that there was, during the three years 1900-2, an increase of 112,464 deaths over the yearly average. The loss of cattle in the year 1899- 1900 amounted to 233,000. The cost of relief measures in the District, including the Panch Mahals, was over 88 lakhs. Remissions of land revenue to the amount of 35 lakhs were granted in these two Districts. The loans granted to agriculturists in Kaira alone amounted to 19 lakhs.

The District is divided into two subdivisions, in charge of an Assistant Collector and a Deputy-Collector respectively, and is com- posed of the seven talukas of Anand, Borsad, Kapadvanj, Matar, Mehmadabad, Nadiad, and Thasra. The Collector is ex-officio Political Agent for Cambay State and Additional Political Agent for Rewa Kantha. For judicial purposes the District is included in the jurisdiction of the Judge of Ahmadabad. There are 5 Subordinate Judges for civil work, and 23 officers, including a bench of magistrates, to administer criminal justice. The common offences are murder in Borsad and Anand, and house-breaking, burglary, cattle-stealing, and thefts else- where.

In 1803, when Kaira was ceded to the British, the District afforded examples of various forms of land revenue administration. In the centre were three kinds of villages: rasti or peaceable, mehwas or refractory, and an intermediate class of rasti-mehwas villages. The refractory villages were occupied by the turbulent descendants of the Rajput and Koll warriors. Here Koll thakurs or chiefs administered despotically their little clusters of huts. Revenue was demanded but seldom paid. The peaceable villages were mostly grants from Govern- ment to those who had done some public service. The most important Muhammadan grants were called maliki, and were held rent-free. Internal administration was the concern of the village community. There were four forms of village government, the commonest being that by which the village headman engaged annually for the payment of a certain sum to Government.

The profits of a good year, under this the most simple and general system, went to the headman ; on the other hand, the headman had to bear any loss from failure of crop or short tillage. Above the headman or patel were the revenue-farmers (katndvisddr)who fixed the village contributions ; and below the head- men were the cultivators and coparceners of the village. A class quite apart, called manotidars, or money-lenders, arose as sureties for the payment of the revenue. This short statement furnishes an outline of the Maratha revenue system. It had the merit of simplicity and was calculated to ensure the recovery of revenue. At the same time it is clear that it was productive of abuses and suffering to the cultivating classes.

When the District was taken over by the British in 1803, the system was continued with but small modification until 1862. In that year the revenue survey system, which deals directly with individual cultivators, was introduced. The result of the survey assessment was to increase the land revenue demand from 11 ½ to 13 ½ lakhs, or by 11 per cent. In 1894 a resettlement was undertaken and completed in 1896, which further enhanced the total revenue by 17 per cent. The average rates of assessment are : ‘ dry ' land, Rs. 3-7 (maximum Rs. 6-12, minimum Rs. 1-8) ; rice land, Rs. 5 11 (maximum Rs. 6-12, minimum Rs. 1-8); garden land, Rs. 9-9 (maximum Rs. 7, minimum Rs.5).

Collections of land revenue and total revenue have been as follows in recent years, in thousands of rupees : —

1880-1.

Of the Government villages, 88 are held on the narvadari tenure. The peculiarity of this tenure is that it involves joint responsibility for the payment of the Government revenue. In narvadari villages the patidars or sharers belong to the Kunbl caste, and on account of being narvadars hold a high position among their fellows, being the descendants of the old proprietary cultivators. This tenure has been preserved by Act V of 1862 of the Bombay Government, but the land tax is levied at survey rates on the whole arable land. The villages on the hanks of the river Mahi held on the mehwasi tenure pay their revenue in a lump sum. A clan of Musalman yeomen, known as the Maliks, have for nearly 400 years held 27 villages on a special tenure.

The District contains 10 municipalities : namely, Kaira, Kapadvanj, Mehmadabad, Nadiad, Dakor, Borsad, Anand, Umreth, Od, and Mahudha. The District board was established in 1863, and there are

7 boards. The total expenditure of all these boards in 1903-4 was 2 ½ lakhs, of which half a lakh was spent on roads and buildings. The chief source of income is the land cess.

The District Superintendent of police has the assistance of 2 inspec- tors and 10 chief constables. There are 12 police stations. The force in 1904 numbered 555 men, working under 133 head constables. Six mounted police under one daffaddr were also maintained. There are

8 subsidiary jails in the District, with accommodation for 187 prisoners. The daily average prison population in 1904 was 36, of whom 2 were females.

The District stands fourth among the Districts of the Presidency in the literacy of its population, of whom 9-9 per cent. (17-9 males and 0'9 females) were able to read and write in 190 1. In 1855-6 there were only 7 schools attended by 1,036 pupils; by 1876-7 the number of schools had risen to 189 and the number of pupils to 14,720.

In 1881 there were 205 schools with 16,107 pupils, who increased to 27,261 by 1891, and numbered 27,911 in 1901. In 1903-4 the District contained 365 schools, of which 84 were private, attended by 17,474 pupils, including 2,581 girls. Besides one high school, there were 14 middle and 266 primary schools. Of the 281 public institu tions, one is managed by the Educational department, and 246 by local or municipal boards, while 30 are aided and 4 unaided. The total expenditure on education in 1903-4 was Rs. 1,85,000, of which Rs. 23,000 was derived from fees. Of the total, 79 per cent, was devoted to primary schools.

In 1904 the District had one hospital and 8 dispensaries, with accommodation for 94 in-patients. The number of patients treated in 1904 was 110,069, including 1,122 in-patients; and 3,675 operations were performed. The expenditure was Rs. 21,000, of which Rs. 15,000 was met from Local and municipal funds. The Irish Presbyterian and Salvation Army Missions have each opened a dispensary at Anand, to which hospitals are shortly to be added.

The number of persons successfully vaccinated in 1903-4 was 17,000, representing a proportion of 24 per 1,000, which is slightly below the average for the Presidency.

[Sir J. M. Campbell, Bombay Gazetteer, vol. iii, Kaira and Panch Mahals (1879).]