Hindu Castes of Aurangabad/ Maharashtra

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This is a collection of articles archived for the excellence of their content.

Note: Indpaedia is likely to have independent entries on many of the castes enumerated on this page

Hindu Castes

Source: Cultural Maharashtra

Hindus are divided into a number of groups, which are socially differentiated. They are known as castes. Census enumeration 1as ceased to take cognizance of these groups since 1941 but they have not ceased to exist, although their rigour has much softened. They are not now the same air-tight compartments that they used to be as regards inter-dining and inter-marrying. Yet the majority of people still stick to their caste when it comes to marriage and it will take long for them to be exterminated totally.

The Gazetteer of Aurangabad, published in 1884, enumerates about 135 castes and sub-castes all of whom pass under the general name Hindus. Their manners and customs, ways of life. standard of living and culture vary widely. The account of each caste and sub-caste is given below.

Brahmans are more than 4 per cent of the entire population. The Brahmans are fairly distributed throughout the district, and are most numerous in the Aurangabad, Paithan, Bhokardan, Kannad, and Ambad tahsils, but the religious classes are chiefly found along the banks of the Godavari. Almost all of them, belong to the Maratha sect of the Panch Dravida or the five southern families of Brahmans.

Brahman

Konkanasth

The Maratha Brahmans are divided into the Konkanasthas and the Deshasthas. The former are comparatively recent settlers and have come from the Konkan. They are sometimes termed Chitpawans and were originally of fourteen families. Balaji Vishwanath, the founder of the Peshwa�s power, belonged to this division., and largely employed the Konkanasthas as clerks and men of business throughout the Maratha State. As a body, they are intelligent; but very few of them are permanently settlbd in the district. The Konkanasthas chiefly take to government and private service, and eat with the Deshasthas, but they do not inter-marry, They are for the most part Shaivas and Smartas, and are Rigvedis and Krishna Yajurvedis.

Deshasth

The Deshasthas receive their name from the open country or "Desh", to the east of the Western Ghats. They appear to have beet the earliest Brahman settlers of Maharashtra, and form the bulk of the Brahman population. The Deshasthas of the district are divided into the �Ashvalayan sub-division of Rigveda: the Apastamba subdivision of Krishna Yalurved; several sections of the Prathamd Shakhi sub-division of the Shukla Yalurveda, such as Madhyandina, Kanva, Maltrayani etc.;.and a few Samavedis.

The Rigvedis and Krishna Yalurvedis inter-marry, but the Shukla Yalurvedis keep to themselves. The Deshasthas, like other Brahmans, are also divided into Shaivas and Vkishnavas. The Shaivas are Rigvedis, Krishna Yalurvedis, Shukla Valurvedis, and Samavedis. The Smartas are called "Adwaiti",, because they believe that there is but one Soul, that God and matter are identical. The founder of their sect was Shankaracharya, and their guru is in Shringeri. The Rhagvatas come next and are likewise followers of Shankaracharya. They include the same "Veds" as the Smartas, but give preferential worship to Vishnu instead of Shiva. The Madhva Vaishnavas are called "Dwaiti", because they believe there are two Souls, in which the Creator and the created are distinct, and that the final absorption will be in the future. They are �Ashvalayans� and �Apastambas�, and their founder was Madhvacharya.

Karhad and others

There are a few other classes that are grouped with the Maratha Brahmans, such as, the Karhadas, who are 'Apastambas� and 'Ashvalayan�, and are generally Shakta worshippers. The Thirgul Brahmans were formerly grouped with the Krishna Yajurvedis, but are now separated because they destroy insect life by taking to the cultivation of the betel-vine. They are both Smartas and Bhagvatas, and are nearly all in the Kannad tahsil. The Shenvis who are old settlers, are associated with the Deshasthas, and so are the Gauds although they properly belong to northern India. They both are Shukla Yajurvedis and are either Smartas or Bhagvatas. The Gauds were engaged as time keepers by the Peshwas, and are generally traders-many of the Marwadi Brahmans belonging to this class. They are most numerous in the Ambad tahsil. The Golaks are believed to have come originally from Kannada, and are of Brahman descent. They are Krishna Yalurvedis and Rigvedis, and are followers of Madhvacharya. The Golaks are found in the Sillod, Jalna and Kannad tahsil. All the principal divisions of the Maratha Brahmans eat together, but marry in their own particular sect. They do not eat with the Thirgul, Shenvi, and Golak; but drink water from the hands of the first though not from the other. The Shenvi cat fish.

Gujarati Brahman

Of the remaining families the Gujarati Brahmans minister to the wants of the Gujarati Vanis, and the Marwadi Brahmans to the Marwadi Vanis. The former are Rigvedis, Shukla Yajurvedis, and Samavedis and are either Smartas or followers of Vallabhacharya. Some of them take to trade, but the majority go about from house to house as religious beggars, priests, and astrologers. The Marwadi Brahmans are Rigvedis, Shukla Yajurvedis, and Samavedis, and follow similar occupations: but the priests are of two kinds, one called Sevaks ministering to Jain Marwadi Vanis, and the other to Meshri Vanis, beggars, and labourers. Most of them are Shri Vaishnavas,; others are Smartas; and a few are followers of Vallabbacharya. Several of the Marwadi Brahmans are related to the Gauds. The Telangana and Kannada Brahmans are rarely seen, and arrive only as pilgrims to Toka, Paithan, and similar Dharmapuris on the Godavari where they remain a few days, and then go off to other sacred places.

Johri

The North India Brahmans generally come in small communities as religious mendicants and priests; but some of them are men of business and form a sort of floating population, returning to their country when they have completed their work. The Hindu Johris, for example are usually Brahmans from north India, and are professional bankers, money-lenders, traders in jewels, and general merchants. They are all in the Jalna and Gangapur tahsils, especially in the former. The Malvi Brahmans are found in JaIna and Aurangabad, and are Smartas and Shukla Yajurvedis. They are employed as watercarriers.

Sanad or Sanvadia Brahman

The Sanad or Sanvadia Brahmans were originally an offshoot of the Gaud, but are now quite distinct. They are priests to the Pardeshis.

Saraswat and Sarwaria

The Saraswats and Sarwarias are mendicants, but many of them were formerly employed as soldiers by the Peshvas. The Saraswats came from the Punjab, and are sometimes priests to the Khattris. The Sarwarias were originally an offshoot from the Kanojias, and became a distinct community about the time of Rama. The Kanoiias follow similar pursuits as the Saraswats and Sarwarias, and are principally found in the Aurangabad tahsil. The Pardeshi Brahmans are principally found in the Aurangabad and Bhokardan tahsils. Except in the case of old settlers among the Sheavis and Gauds, the north India Brahmans do not. as a rule. marry among those of the south, nor do they take food with them. In fact they eat only in their own particular sect, and in some cases, as with the Kanojias and Sarwariasi are very exclusive even in their own families. They are nearly all Smartas, and are Shukla Yajurvedis and Samavedis, but some of the Saraswats are Rigvedis and Shri Vaishnavas. There are also a few Jain priests.

Brahma-Kshattria

The Brahma Kshattrias are supposed to be the descendants of a Rishi and a Kshattria girl. According to the Sahyadri Purana when Parashurama was slaying the Kshattrias, one of the latter named raja I� 1 fled to a Sarasvat Brahman for refugew The Brahman gave raja I� 1 his daughter in marriage, and thus saved the Kshattria. The offspring of the raja and the Brahman girl were called Brahma Kshattrias; and to the present day the Saraswats are their priests. According to a legend of their own, the Brahma Kshattrias are descended from Kaushika, the son of Rishi Vishwamitra, by a Kshattria girl. The Brahmap Kshattrias are traders, and came into the Dakhanin the regin of the Emperor Akbar. Those in the district are all found in Begampura in the city of Aurangabad. The Brahman-zais are traders, money-lenders, gumastas under saukars� etc. Most of them are in the Bhokardan, Ambad and Paithan tahsils. The Vidurs follow similar occupations. They have priests of their own, and are principally found in the Jalna tahsil.

Jogi, Bairagi, and Gosai

The Jogis are most numerous in Jalna, Bhokardan, and Kannad tahsils; the Bairagis in Kannad, Aurangabad, and Bhokardan; and the Gosais in Ambad, Bhokardan, Jalna, Kannad and Aurangabad tahsils. It will be observed that the Jogis and Bairagis are chiefly found in the hilly and jungle portions of the district; but the Gosais are more generally distributed.

Kashi Kapdi

The Kashi Kopdis or Kashi Kavdis are constantly passing to and from carrying the Ganga water to Rameshwar in south India and are all in the Bhokardan talisil.

Mangbhau

The Mangbhaus are quite distinct as a religious body from the Brahmans. Their sector was founded by Krishna Bhat, a celebrated Brahman of Paithan, who flourished in the 14th century, and was the guru of a raja Depala. According to a Brahman account, Krishna Bhat was a man of considerable talent, who taught a religious system which bears a close resemblance to that of Swami Narayan of Guiarat. His doctrines are based on the Vedas. His five sons promulgated his teachings far and wide, and established monasteries at Dwarka inGurarath, ridhpur in Berar, Mahur, etc. to which the Manglibatis flock in considerable numbers during the time of the annual fairs that are held at these places. The lay members of the Mangbhaus are called Gharbaris, and the monks and nuns, Bairagis. The latter break off all ties of caste and family, and maintain a life of mendicancy and exclusion. They are dressed in black, and are clean shaven; but their gurus do not shave, nor do the secular members who marry and carry on business like other people. The Mangbhaus are exceedingly careful of animal life, are strict vegetarians, abstemious in habits, and eat only with the initiated. They partly observe the laws of caste, and will not allow a Mahar to become a devotee. The Kunbis believe that they are versed in magic, and purchase charms and philters from them. The Mangbhaus are a harmless sect with peculiar laws and customs of their own, especially about drinking water in temples dedicated to goddesses, a circumstance supposed to he connected with a mukut, or head-picce, given by a certain goddess to Krishna Bhat, through wearing which, he appeared as chaturbhuj or four-armed Vishnu. There was one condition attached to the gift, that the mukut should not be allowed to touch the ground: but a Brahman of Benaras having obtained knowledge of this fact. contrived to knock the mukut down, and it instantly vanished. A figure of Vishnu as chaturbhul is seen in Anandaswami�s mandir at Jalna and another in the temple to Shivdin Kesari Nath at Paithan. Mangbhaus eat with. kunbis, but not with Telis and Tambolis. They bury their dead, and have a wandering headman. Brahmans attend their marriages.

Swami Narayani

There are a few followers of Swami Narayan of Gujrat, who flourished in the 17th century. Swami Narayan�s name was Ghanghyam Pandya, but it was afterwards changed to Sahjanand when he became a mahant. He was a Sarwaria Brahman of Oude, and his followers are included among the Vaishnavas. The followers of Swami Narayan like the Mangbhaus are considered heterodox. as they do not believe in the Shastras and Puranas, and are guided only by the Vedas.

Rajput

The Rajputs are found throughout the district, and are in greatest number in the Bhokardan, Aurangabad, Kannad and Jalna tahsils. The Rajputs were formerly employed to garrison some of the hill-forts. Some of the Deshpandes of the district are of Rajput descent; and it is not uncommon to find one branch of the family professing the Mahammedan faith, to which it was converted, in the time of Aurangzeb, while the other still adheres to the Hindu religion. The Rajputs are also employed in government and private service as writers, etc. They are however, mostly landholderg and a few take to agriculture, but do not hold the plough. The men sometimes drink spirits, and eat the flesh of goats, sheep, wild pig, etc., but never eat beef. They talk a corrupt form of Hindustani among themselves; and their dress is not very different from that of the Marathas. The females wear a lenga or loose petticoat, a choli or a bodice of different cut from that worn by Maratha women, and a dupatta or sheet which covers the whole. They are generally kept secluded, and when they come out in the streets, they are so completely covered, that not the slightest portion of their body can he seen.

Khayat and others

Numbers of Khayats, Khattris Prabhus. Pardeshis, Marwadis, etc. came along with the Rajputs in the train of the imperial Moghal armies into the Dakhan. The Khayats are principally found in the city of Aurangabad, and in the Ambad and Paithan talisils. They are employed as writers or practise as pleaders. The Khayats receive food only from men of their own particular castes and not from women. They have twelve sub-divisions, and state that they are descended from Chitragupta, the secretary of Dharmaraja (Yama). In the beginning of the last quarter of the 19th Century, a great movement took place among the Khayat community, which ended in the establishment of their claim to be classed as Kshattrias. The Khattris are found in Aurangabad, Jalna and Sillod talisils. They follow similar occupations to the Khayats and are also brokers, drapers, betel-leaf sellers, etc. Those from Hindustan speak Hindustani and use meat and spirits. The settlers from Gujarat speak and dress in the Gujarati style, and are weavers of mashuru, workers in lace, and money lenders. The Khattris that live in Aurangabad are of the Mehre clan as distinguished from the Rodes, and came originally from the Punjab. The Kapurs are the descendants of Sarasvat Brahmans. They are mostly brokers by profession, and are found in Jalna. The Prabhus are nearly all in Vaijapur tahsil. The Pardeshis are found throughout the district, but are most numerous in Aurangabad, Kannad, and Bhokardan tahsils. They follow all sorts of occupations, and are goldsmiths. black-smiths, carpenters, barbers, betelleaf sellers, liquor sellers, potters, dhobis,, tanners, shoe-makers, sharpeners of knives, etc. A few are cultivators and shopkeepers, and others manufacture scabbards of swords, or are saddlers. They speak a corrupt form of Hindustani and use meat and spirits. Remarriage of widows is permitted among all of them.

Of the remainder of the inhabitants from the north India. the Kshatttias are found principally at Aurangabad where they are employed as writers; but some of them at Ajanta are cultivators.

Rathod

The Rathods are in Government service, and are in Aurangabad and Bhokardan tahsils. The Purbias are kalhals, retail sellers, etc. and are most numerous in the Kannad, Sillod, and Bhokardan tahsils.

Vysya

[Vysya is the spelling Indpaedia has adopted from South India to distinguish Vaishya the caste from Vaishyâ, the profession. The two are spelt and pronounced differently in the Indian languages]

Vani

The sub-divisions of the Vanis or Vaishya are included under the general heads of Khandeshi, Gujarati, Marwadi, and Lingayat. The Khandeshi Vanis are represented by the Kathars, who are nearly all in Kannad tahsil. The Gujaratis are chiefly in Aurangabad, Paithan and Vaijapur tahsils., the Lads in Paithan, Ambad, and Aurangabad tahsils., the Marwadis are very generally distributed, especially in Gangapur, Jalna, Aurangabad, and Ambad tahsils., the Agarwals are in Khuldabad, Sillod, and Gangapur tahsils: and the Jains in Ambad and Paithan tahsils. The Lingayat Vanis of southern India are most numerous in Jalna, Bhokardan, and Ambad tahsils., and the Komtis in the Aurangabad, Jalna, and Vaijapur tahsils. All classes of Vanis are vegetarians, and their staple articles of food are wheat, jowar, and rice. Some of the old settlers from Gujarat and northern India have adopted the Dakhani costume of dress, with sadi and choli for the females, and a large turban, a dhoti, a loose coat hanging down to the ankle, and a dupatta or rumal for the males. The majority however, adhere to north Indian dress. consisting of a peculiar distinctive turban for the males, and a petticoat, a long or short sleeves bodlice, open at the back and a scarf thrown over all for the females.

Kathar - Gujara and others

The Kathars are retail sellers, cultivators, and bullock hirers. They are Jains by religion, and the men and women dress in Gujarati fashion. The Gujaratis are tradesmen, agents to bankers, workers in gold and silver lace known as "kallabattu, or proprietors of such laceworks,and manufacturers of mashru and himru. Others are goldsmiths, jewellers and tailors. The Gujarathis are fairer than the Marwadis. and some of them wear the turban of the Bhattias having a horn or peak in front. They are divided into the following clans, the members of which do not intermarry; Porval, Desawal, Khadaiti, Nagar, Shrimali, Modh, Chitori and Gurar. The females are clever with the needle, and flower silk with much skill and taste. Their dress is much scantier than that of the Marwadi women. The Gujars claim Rajput origin. and were formerly renowned for their martial habits, but have now chiefly adopted agriculture or are herdsmen like the Abirs. Their widows are allowed to marry. The Ravuli is a tribe of Gujars found in Aurangabad, Jalna, and Ambad tahsils, the members of which are principally cultivators. The Golahs are professional salt from Jats and Gurajs. There are a few Jats who have taken to agriculture.The Lads are a sub-division of the Gujaratis. All the above generally speak Gujarais or a dialect of Hindi ; and either profess the Jain religion or ar Vallabhapanthi Vaishnavas. There are a few Bhattias who are settleres form Kutch, and like the Gujaratis are saukars, shop- keepers, traders etc. They are all found in vaijapur, but several others come annuallly from Bombay during the cold season, as agents for cotton, linseed, etc. The Kachhi Budelis reside in Begampura, in the city of Aurangabad, and are fruit sellers, market and flower gardeners and agriculturist. They speak Hindi, and state that they came from Bundelkhand as cavalry and infantry soldiers in the time of Aurangzeb. Like the other north Indian settlers, they burn their dead, but bury those who die of small-pox

Marwadi-Agarwal-Jain

The Marwadis are from the desert of Jaipur, and are bulky yellow coloured men, taller and more vigorous than the Gujaratis. They arrange themselves in twelve tribes, such as Meshri, Agarwal, Oswal, Shravaka, Kandawal, Baijabargi, Thakur, etc., who eat together but do not inter-marry. The Oswal and Shravaka profess the Jain religion; and the Oswal is the richest and most numerous of the mercantile tribes. The Agarwals are also wealthy as a class, and are partly Jain and partly Hindu in their religion. The remaining tribes are of the Vaishnava, sect, worshipping Krishna and Radha. Marwadis are usually employed as bankers, grain-dealers, and confectioners. but there are several families belonging to the divisions of Sonars, Mait Sonars, Malwi Sonars, Hajams or barbers, and Khati Marwadi, Badhais or carpenters. The members of a tribe called Rajmali are woodsellers. Marwadis are proud of their cookery and are particularly successful in their sweetmeats. They are found of gay clothes and the men dress themselves in the purest and plainest white muslin, but wear the richest brocade scarves, and shawls with turbans of two or more bright colours. The apparel of the women, especially at festivals, is equally gorgeous, and the amount of ornament is proverbial. The petticoats called ghagra are in ample folds and of at least two differenct hues: the bodice is open-backed and short-sleeved and the gay sadi or upper garment is generally bordered with narrow gold or silver lace. Jewels are worn on the feet, ankles, round the neck, and as nose-rings, earrings, bracelets, etc. The females, however do not wear any ornaments of gold about the feet; and they twist a thin wire of gold or silver between the two front teeth. They go about in companies, but cover their faces and look out only from the margin of their upper garment. The different groups of the Marwadis are subdivided into innumerable kaps or clans; and the men usually marry one wife from their own clan, but abstain from blood relationship and do not marry in their own gotra. They burn their dead, and hire servants to convey the charred bones and ashes to the river, instead of taking them personally. Their widows never marry. The Jains are retail sellers, cultivators, tailors. and labourers. A few are weavers and cloth merchants.

Lingayat-Lad

The Lingayat Vanis arrange themselves into several sections such as Panchams, Melwants, Dixwants, Chilwants, etc. and although they do not in their creed, recognise caste, they are very exclusive even among themselves, and the followers of every different trade or avocation refuse to cat together or inter-marry. They are shopkeepers, confectioners and sometimes agriculturists. The Lingayat Kannads follow similar occupations, and are mostly found in the Vaijapur and Aurangabad tahsils. Several of. the Lingayats are telis or oilmen tambolis or betel-leaf sellers, and few are carpenters, black-smiths, goldsmiths, barbers, potters, dhobis, and gaulis or cowherds. The Lingayat Vanis and Komtis are darker-coloured and smaller men than the Vanis of north India; and they have, to a great extent been superseded as retail traders by the Gujaratis and Marwadis, especially by the latter. The Lads are generally goldsmiths, merchants, and bankers, who came originally from Gulbarga. The Lingayats inter their dead in a sitting position; but among the Lads, those who die unmarried are buried, and all the others are burnt. In the celebration of marriage, the Lads and the Lingayats adopt a plan contrary to the general custom among other Hindus, and take the bride to the bride-groom�s house. The Lingayat marriage rites are very simple. Among rich Lingayats, however, more elaborate ceremonies are observed. The widows are allowed to remarry. Lingayat women are fond of ornaments, and often wear a silver or gold zone which confines the sadi at the waist. They are frequently good-looking, and are fairer than the women of the other classes of south India Bannias. Their sole object of worship is the lingam.

Jangam

The Jangams are the priests of the Lingayats, and are most numerous in Aurangabad, Jalna, and Kannad tahsils. They are enjoined to he constantly on the move to be unmarried, poorly dressed, and to beg their food from place, to place. The majority of them are melidicant beggars; but several are silk weavers, and a few arc cultivators and retail sellers

Komti

The Komtis are Bannias or small traders, dealing in grain, cotton sugar, and other products. They also do a little mercantile business as agents to saukars, and even take to agriculture but do not hold the plough. As a class, they are on a mere average as regards wealth although sometimes they become saukars, mahajans, bankers, etc. but this is rare, and they prefer to carry on their fathers� calling. They buy all the thread spun in the village, or what they can procureat fair, and dispose of them to weavers, taking the produce in cloths. Komtis generally speak Telugu, and employ Brahmans for marriage and death ceremonies.

Other castes

Bahri and Tirmali-Tamboli and others

The Hindu cultivators of the betel-vine termed Bahris and Tirmalis are found in Bhokardan, Aurangabad and Ambad. They are seldom retail sellers of the betel-leaf which is an occupation followed by Lingayats, and other Hindus called Tambolis who are most numerous in Sillod. The sellers of perfumes called Gandhis are Gujaratis and are common in Jalna, Aurangabad, and Bhokardan. The Attars reside in the Jalna, Aurangabad, and Ambad tahsils; and a class of Hindus called Wattaries are also sellers of perfumes and are found in Khuldabad, Bhokardan, and Ambad. The Halvais are Marwadi or Lingayat confectioners; and the Bhadbunjas are Pardeshi sellers of parched or roasted grain. They are both found in Aurangabad and Jalna. The Kalhals include Maratha, Pardeshi, and Lad liquor sellers, and are most numerous in Bhokardan, Kannad, Aurangabad and Sillod. A few toddy sellers are found in the Gangapur and Paithan tahsils.

Maratha

The term Maratha is now applied principally to the Kunbis, but it should be confined to the military families of the country. The Kunbis do not as a rule enlist as soldiers; and although Shiva ji and some of his Maratha chiefs were of this race, their followers were chiefly drawn from the Mawals of the Western Ghats.

Many of them claim descent from the Rajputs. The women are well treated and are help-mates; and the wives of all chiefs and military men are veiled. Marathas pride themselves on their surnames, such as Shinde, Holkar, Bhosle, Dengle etc., and they form the greater portion of the inhabitants of the district. They are landholders, cultivators, and are found in all the trades and professions. Those who have taken the bhagat or vow of abstinence, do not eat flesh or drink spirits, and observe a strictly vegetarian diet; but quite a large number of them relish non-vegetarian diet as well.

Kunbi

The Kunbis form the main body of the agricultural population. The term Kunbi has been sometimes applied to to husbandmen in general, but in reality it is a caste of Marathas, the members of which are by hereditary occupation, formers and tillers of the soil.

The Kunbis though quiet and unpretending, are a robust, sturdy. independent agricultural people. All Kunbis, however, are not cultivators.

There are several sub-divisions of local Kunbis, such as, Tilvan or Tirole Maratha, Dakshini, Ghatole, Banjara, Akarmase, Barmase, Zadhav. Vaindeshi, Bijapuri, Khandeshi, Varhadi, etc.; but the Akarmase and Barmase are the most common. The Tilvan Kunbis are moderately distributed throughout the district. The Maratha Kunbis are in two sections-1. Pure Maratha Kunbis and 2. Gantadi or ordinary Kunbis. The pure Maratha Kunbis are very strict in the performance of religious ceremonies, etc., observe all the fasts etc., common to the Brahmans, wear the janwe or sacred thread will not allow "mohtur." or "pat" which is the remarriage of a widow, and are vegetarians, eating only from the hands of a Brahman or from one of their own sub-divisions. They marry their near relatives like the Rigvedi Brahmans, and the bride-groom is allowed to wear his turban and shoes during the whole time that the marriage ceremonies are being celebrated. The wives are kept in seclusion called Mola and are not permitted like ordinary Maratha Kunbi women and those of other castes, to wear the Kasi bangle made of pewter or German silver. They break their glass bangles and the kali gursoli or marriage string on becoming widows, and will not use kunku on their forehead. The Gantadi or ordinary Maratha Kunbis are much more numerous, and allow widows to marry widowers. The ceremony opens with a feast given by the parents of the widow; after which the man and woman are made to sit on a mat or on a bullock saddle which is placed on the ground, and the Brahman ties their clothes. In this manner the couple proceed to the Kulaswami or household deity which they worship, then they fall at the feet of the elderly relatives, and the Brahman unties the knot, pronouncing them man and wife. The woman is named after the widower�s first wife, and the offspring is considered legitimate. Both the Maratha and Gantadi Kunbis have special surnames such as Gaikwad, Shinde, Nimbalkar and Pawar. The Dakshini Kunbis marry only among themselves.

Vaindesi – Ghatole

The Vaindeshis marry their daughters to ordinary Maratha Kunbis but the latter will not give their daughters to Vaindeshis. The Ghatoles are found in the Balaghat; and a few Lonis are met with beyond the Ajanta range.

Banjara - Akarmase and Barmase

The Banjara and Lamani cultivators are fairly distributed everywhere, and can hardly be distinguished from the local Kunbis. The Akarmase and Barmase are a class of cultivators.

The ordinary Kunbis are kind and hospitable, eat flesh and all excesses are publishable by caste rules. They burn or bury their dead, allow their widows to remarry, and have gurus of their own but are subject to Brahmans in matters of faith and ceremony. They make good husbands; and the women are chaste faithful, neat and clean, but are plain and ordinary-looking, and as they grow older, become seamed and care-worn as if from hard work. In fact the Kunbi woman is very industrious, for in addition to her domestic duties, she very often earns wages as a labourer to other Kunbis, or assists her husband on his own field, sells the produce at fairs and markets, and collects grass, fuel, etc. At home she rises early, carries water from river or well, grinds the daily corn, makes bread, and prepares hot water for her husband�s bath, and her own. Before breakfast, the kulaswami or family deity is worshipped, when the wife receives the pure caste mark from her husband; and after he has gone to the fields, she perhaps washes clothes, sweeps the house, plasters the floor with liquid cowdung, churns butter or makes it into ghee, and then, either goes out to labour in the fields, or joins a group of women and spins thread till it is time to get ready her husband�s evening meal. She is not much of a needlewoman, but can make her own bodices and her husband�s ordinary jackets; while the padded coats are given to the village tailor. The Kunbi marries his children at an early age, but the mungi or betrothal takes place one or two years earlier. The village artisans and menial servants assist on such occasions, and also when a birth or death takes place in the family, so that these ceremonies are very expensive. At the marriage festivities, the horse on which the bride-groom rides is led by the barber, who waves a chauri or horse-hair whisk over the bride-groom�s head; the Mang beats the drum and blows the horn; the Dhobi spreads the white cloth over which the bride-groom, accompanied by his mother, or the leading female member of his family, walks to the house of the bride; the carpenter is in attendance with the chaurang or wooden stool which with other things, the bride�s family presents to the bride-groom, and also furnishes the wooden horse by the side of which the bridegroom walks when the bride is brought home; the Kumbhar supplies the bride�s family with the earthen vessels painted red and white, and in the concluding procession, takes his place with a rude imitation of an elephant and the Koli supplies the water for the feast. All these receive a present of a cloth; but the Mahar, who works the hardest, is presented with a sadi and bodice for his wife, and gets some of the broken victuals. The Mahar women who carry lamps placed on brass plates containing betel-leaf, etc. and attend upon the bridegroom, also receive presents; while the Bhat who marries the couple is paid a handsome sum of money, besides being presented with clothes, etc.

Mali

The Malis are an allied race of husbandmen, who eat with the Kunbis, but do not intermarry with them. Those found in the district consist of cultivators, gardeners, labourers, cattle grazers, tambolis, kallabuttusas, tarkassis, sutars, sonars, retail sellers, gaundis, kalhas , persons in government or private service, and beggars. There are several kinds of Malis, such as Phul, Ran, Jiri, Gaasi. Khasi, Haldi, and Sagar. A few Navghari and Lad Malis, belonging to the Gujaratis are included among the cultivators. As a rule, Malis are not landholders and all the Maratha sub-divisions cat flesh and allow widows to remarry.

Sonar

The Sonars are jewellers and goldsmiths. They also follow other occupations, as cultivators, labourers, cattle grazers, weavers, tarkassis, and beggars.

Ahir

The Ahir Sonars eat flesh, and allow their widows to remarry. The Vaishya Sonars are mostly Madhav Vaishnavas and wear the sacred thread. They speak Hindustani, abstain from meat and spirits, and will only take food from the hands of a Brahman. The Panchal Sonars are from southern India, and derive their name from a supposed acquaintance with work in gold, wood, iron, brass and stone. According to their speciality, however they may become goldsmiths carpenters, blacksmiths, braziers, or stone masons, as there is no particular craft confined to a family, and any of the above occupations may be followed according to individual inclination. They all wear the sacred string, and are divisions of the same race, for they intermarry. The goldsmiths are the head of the Panchals, and have caste jurisdiction over the others. The Panchals worship Vishwakarma, the architect of the gods; and are Vaishnavas and Shaivas, but have social intercourse, and intermarry with one another. The Shaivas usually wear the ling. Goldsmiths are in good circumstances and are sharp men of business, though they seldom attain much wealth. The village shroff is frequently a goldsmith; but the town shroff is above an artisan in social condition, and is even considered superior to a bania. The town shroff is sometimes a Brahman, a Khattri, a Vaishya, or a Shudra, and if fortunate becomes a saukar or mahajan.. His stall is frequently a place for gossip, he can detect false coin very readily; and like the banker and tradesman, keeps double entry, worships his day-book and ledger at Dasara and Divali.

Sutar

The Sutars or carpenters are of good position, but some of them wear the sacred thread and claim to be descended from the Kshattrias. They are in three distinct sections, Pardesi, Maratha, and Panchal who do not intermarry or eat with one another. The Pardeshi Sutars are frequently Lodhis from the vicinity of Oude. Several of them are cultivators, but the majority are carpenters or are employed in Government service. Their marriage and other ceremonies are similar to those of the Rajputs, but they do not wear the sacred string. The Khati Marwadi Badhais are settlers from Marwad, and adopt the manners and customs of the Marwadis. The Maratha Sutars eat meat, and allow their widows to remarry. They are usually village carpenters, and are paid in kind according to the baluta system for making and mending field tools, but are paid in cash for household work. There are also a few Ahir Sutafs, who keep to themselves and are hard-working. The Panchal Sutars are not so common as the other sub-divisions. The carpenters earn good wages, and the woodwork and carving seen in the balconies of the houses at Auran-gabad, JaLna, Paithan and other places, show that they possess skilful workmen among them.

Lohar

The Lohars or blacksmiths are in four sub-divisions, Pardeshi, Maratha, Ahir, and Panchal, who follow the customs and manners of their particular sect. The Chatri Lohars are blacksmiths, coppersmiths, and silversmiths. They do not use meat and spirits, and burn their dead. The Maratha blacksmiths eat meat, burn their dead, and allow widow marriage. Their marriage ceremonies are performed by Brahmans; and they worship Devi and Khandoba. The Ahir Lohars dress like Hindus, and are in poor circumstances, repairing the iron-work to plough etc. All the Ahir artisans, like the Panchals keep together, and are governed by their own panchayat in social matters.

Saikalgar

There are also a few Pardeshi Saikalgars, who go about grinding and. cleaning knives, and making sword sheaths. The blacksmiths hold a position next in grade to the carpenters, and a few wear the sacred thread. They do not earn such good wages as carpenters; although as artisans they are equal to any work in their own line, agricultural or household. Some of the blacksmiths are cultivators and labourers.

Ghisadi

The Ghisadis are travelling blacksmiths who rank a little higher than Mahars and Chambhars. They are also called Tarimuk and go about with donkeys from village to village looking after odd jobs. The Ghisadis are very poor, and are not allowed to reside in villages, but pitch their black blanket tents in the village precincts. They state that they came from the north; are dark but not black and are taller than Hindus in general. Their language, called Tarimukhi, contains several Marathi and Kanarese words. They worship Khandoba, sacrifice at birth to Satwi, burn the married but bury the unmarried, and carry food to the grave for three days.

Kasar

The Kasars sell glass bangles, and a few deal in brass and copper vessels. They take to other occupations as well, such as government or private service, and agriculture, while some work as labourers. Kasars who manufacture brass and copper vessels are called Tambatagars.

Kachari

Kachatis make glass bangles; and Lakheras cover the bangles with lakh or selling wax, and colour glass. Kasars and Tembatgars are as a rule, well-do-do; of good cast, and very abstemious in habits. They allow remarriage, worship Kali, burn their dead, and eat from the hands of Brahmans.

Shimpi

The Shimpis or tailors are Ahirs. Jains, Namdevs, Bhavsagars, Telangis, and Lingayats. The Ahir Shimpis are chiefly found towards the north, and the Jains about Jalna and Aurangabad. The Maratha Namdevs and Bhaysagars are most numerous about Jalna and Aurangabad. They are Shaivas and Vaishnavas, allow widow marriage, and settle disputes among themselves. The tailors are in easy circumstances, and are assisted in their work by their women and children. They also take to other occupations, and are cultivators, labourers, cloth and retail sellers. Saukars, rangaris, and tarkaisis. There are besides, a few Pardeshi and Guiarati Shimpis.

Kumbhar

The Kumbhars or potters are Pardeshis or Marathas, with a few Ladhs, Naths, and Lingayats. The Pardeshi Kumbliars observe the manners and customs of the Hindus of north India. They eat only from the hands of their own people; but there is a peculiar custom among fathers and mothers, who will not eat from the hands of their married daughters living with husbands, until the daughters have become mothers themselves. There are a few families from Gwallor, who are potters, and brick and tile makers. The Maratha Kumbhars worship Shiva rather than Krishna, and employ Brahmans for marriages, etc. but have also priests of their own. They eat meat, and burn their dead. During the marriage ceremonies, the bride and bridegroom, like other Hindus, wear a wreath of the palas (butea frondosa), called bashing. The Kumbhar has his place in the village system. In return he receives his share of the collection of grain from the cultivators, and certain contributions from the artisans. Kumbliars are sober and industrious and the females do a great deal of work. They manufacture wares from the smallest earthen cup or Water vessel, to large jars and urns; and the painted elephants, sheep, horses, male and female figures, images of gods and goddesses, and small cups and vessels which are made by them, are sold by hundreds at every village fair.

Jinghar

The Jinghars are a poor class, generally of Pardeshis, who make ,or repair native saddles and scabbards of swords, and colour sticks, etc. with scaling wax.

Beldar

The Beldars are builders in brick or mud and are in fair circumstances. A few of the Kunbis, take to this occupation, while some of the Beldars are cultivators. There are also, Pardesi Beldars, and others from south India.

Gaundi

The Gaundis assist the Beldars as stone masons, and contain Kunbis, Pardeshis, Malis and Lingayats among their number. The Lonaris are sellers of charcoal, workers in lime, and manufacturers of salt; but the last occupation is usually followed by a class of people called Shoragar. They are all Mahars by caste, and bum or bury their dead.

Chittar-Khattri-Khadsuthri and others

The Chittar Khattris are painters, decorators of walls, palanquins, etc., and the Khadsuthris are toy makers. The Zarekharris are Kunbis by caste, who sweep up the dust in the Sonars� workshops and wash it out to collect particles of gold. The Karazkars and Beruls are retail sellers and labourers.

Teli

The Telis or oil manufacturers and sellers are in four divisions, Maratha, Lingayat, Pardeshi and Ahir. The Maratha Telis are the most common in the district, and are Shaivas and Vaishnavas, but chiefly worship their oil-mills. The Lingayats come next, and then the Pardeshis. Most of the Telis use wooden mills to which they yoke one ox; and press til (sesamum), kardai (safflower seed) ambadi (hemp), and alshi (linseed). Telis may be looked upon as part of the agricultural community, and are in good circumstances. The customs of the Maratha Telis are like those of the Kunbis, and many of the latter follow the occupation of oil-making. The Telis select their own headman called Chaudhari, allow widow marriage and burn or bury their dead.

Sali

The Salis or weavers are in several sections, Sakun, Padma, Ahir, Gujarati, etc. Tle Sakun and Padma Salis are said to be of Maratha and Telugu origin, respectively and are found with other weavers at Paithan, Jalna and Aurangabad. They have separate headman and do not intermarry. Padma Salis are Vaishnavas, and dress like Marathas. Both the sub-divisions weave cotton clothes for sadis, dhotis etc. and a few work in silk.

Patvekar

The Patvekars spin the silk or cotton threads for silk fringe, lace, tassels, etc. and are common about Jalna. There are a few Kunbi and Pardeshi Patvekars at Paithan and Aurangabad. The Tarkassis, or gold wire makers are found in the Jalna and Garippur tahsils. The gold wire wound round either cotton or silk thread is used by the kallabattu weavers and is made into gold lace, or woven into cotton or silk clothes. The kallabattu weavers and Hindu Tarkassis are chiefly Tarns, Gujaratis and Pardeshis. The two last burn their dead. The Guiarati Khattris weave the fine silk cloth known as mashru.

Koshti

The Koshtis or cotton and silk weavers are in six divisions, Hadgar, Thavang, Lad, Maratha, Padnavar, and Karnavar. The Hadgar and Thavang are Lingayats, and employ Brahmans as well as Janganis at their marriage and other ceremonies. One sub-division of the Thavang worships Vishnu and another Shiva, but both intermarry. The Lingayat, Lad and Maratha Koshtis are manufacturers of a cloth called pitamber in which gold lace is used. The Maratha Koshtis are Kunbis and several of them are cultivators. The Lingayat Koshtis do not always carry the ling openly like the Vanis. The Nachabands are principally Jangams, and make waist cloths which are sometimes richly embroidered with lace. A few Salis and Koshtis, known as Navaria, manufacture tape. The thread spinners are usually women of all castes, from the Kunbi to the Mahar.

Blanket Weavers-Tagvala-Rangan

The blanket weavers do not belong to a separate caste, but wool weaving is followed as an occupation by Dhangars, Kalkars,Kunbis, Malis, etc. The Dhangars and Hatkars, however, are principally engaged in this work, and their women are employed in spinning wool. The Tagvalas or ganni Weavers are principally in the Bhokardan talisil. They are for the most part Vaishnavas, but also worship other Hindu deities. Lamanas and Banjaras, who move about with pack bullocks, frequently follow this occupation; and some of the Tagvalas on the other hand are cultivators and labourers. The Rangaris or dyers are in several sub-divisions, but the Bliavsagars and Namdevs are the most common and are related to the Bliavsagar and Namdev Shimpis. They are chiefly found in the Aurangabad, Jalna, and Ambad talisils. Their craft is hereditary, the secrets of mixtures of colours descending from father to son. They are worshippers of Devi and Bhavani, allow widow marriage, burn or bury the dead, have a headman of their own and a council to settle social disputes. They prepare colours, print and dye cloths, and are in easy circumstances. Dyeing is carried on by Muhammedans as well, apart or in combination with Hindus. but the latter are the more numerous of the two.

Nhavi

The barber caste, Nhavi, Warik or Hajam is in five sub-divisions. Maratha, Ahir, Telugu, Marwadi, and Pardeshi. The Maratha Nhavis are torch-bearers at marriage ceremonies; and the Ahirs hold an umbrella over the bridegroom and play on musical instruments. The customs and manners of the former are similar to those of the Kunbis. The Telugu barbers (Mangali) are few in number, and are sub-divided into Shribaj and Lajgan. The Shribaj are the commoner of the two, and are Vaishnavas. The Marwadi Hajams are similar to the Porwal Marwadis in their marriage ceremonies. The Pardeshi Rajams follow the occupation of Tambolis or sellers of betel-leaves in addition to their special calling. Barbers are members of village councils and rank after carpenters and blacksmiths. Their women are employed as midwives. Nhavis are also cultivators, labourers and cattle grazers.

Parit

The Parit or Dhobi are sub-divided into Maratha, Pardeshi, and Telugu. They are quite distinct from one another, do not intermarry, and burn their dead, but the Telugu Dhobis bury small children and old people. The Dhobis wash for Brahmans, Vanis and Kunbis and belong to the regular village establishment.

Ahir Gauli-Gauli

The Gaulis or herdsmen are in two divisions. Ahir Gauli and Gauli. The Ahir Gaulis keep cows and buffaloes, but not goats and sheep; and trade in milk and the preparations from it, especially ghee. They are Vaishnavas, worship Balaji, burn their dead, allow widow marriage, and call in Brahmans for marriage ceremonies. The Ahirs were originally in eight clans, the chief of which, the Nandvanshi, is said to have brought up Krishna. Although their customs and manners are everywhere the same, the Ahirs have no distinct headman of their own, and the Various clans intermarry and eat together. The Gaulis resemble the Ahir Gaulis, and like them, are a simple pastoral people, subsisting mainly by the produce of the dairy. They are sub-divided into the Maratha, Lingayat, Lad, and Nandvanshi; and are settled in all the tahsils, selling milk, curds, buttermilk, and ghee. The Maratha Gaulis have a cultural affinity with the Kunbis; and are either Shaivas or Vaishnavas, have numerous sub-divisions, marry only in their own gots, and allow widow marriage. The Lingayat Gaulis, like the Lingayat Koshtis, do not wear the ling openly, but keep it in their turbans. They bury their dead, and place a quantity of bel leaves (aegle marmelos) and salt around the corpse. The Gaulis are tall, robust, and fair, and they like the Ahir Gaulis, are a good-looking people like the upper class Hindus. They are generally well-to-do, and are cultivators as well as milk-dealers; but farming is only a secondary occupation with them, and they attend chiefly to their herds. The Gauli women wear the choli or bodice of the north Indian style with the Hindu sadi but sometimes they use the petticoat and scarf.

Dhangar

The Dhangar are shepherds, and are supposed to have come from Hindustan in twelve tribes. They have nine sub-divisions in the district, Ahir, Khuntehkar, Maratha, Holkar, Hatkar, Bande, Pardeshi, Gaddi, and Telugu, who are said neither to eat together nor to intermarry; but the Maratha, Holkar, and Khuntelikar, are probably the same, the last name being derived from the pegs used in weaving blankets. The Holkar and Bande appear also to be identical. Dhangars are generally cultivators, labourers, blanket-makers, and dealers in sheep and goats., while a few are carpenters, cattle-grazers, or are employed in private service. They sell wool, sheep, goats, and a little milk and ghee; and the women weave sadis. A professional class of grazers called Tilari move with their flocks to the higher ranges of hills during the hot season when forage is scarce, and return to the district in fair weather. They are engaged by cultivators to fold their goats and sheep on the fields for the sake of anure. Dhangars employ Brahmans at marriages, allow widow marriage, andare Vaishnavas with an under-current of fetishism. They bury their dead.

Hatkar

The Halkars are called Bargi Hatkars or shepherds with the spears, as distinguished from the Kota Pullia Dhangars or keepers of sheep. They were very turbulent at one time, and originally belonged to the military profession, but were called Dhangars because they enlisted under Holkar, who was himself a Dhangar. They all speak Marathi, are very hard-working and have settled down as labourers and cultivators. Hatkars marry only among themselves; and the men never cut the hair from their face. The widows can go in for pat marriages. The Dhangars and Hatkars have several patels among their number.

Koli

The Kolis belong to the aborigines. They are divided into the Kolis of the hilly countries, and the Kolis of the plains. They are also arranged in separate tribes such as Raj, Salshi, Tonkri, Dhaur, Danjari, Ahir, Neri, etc. Several tribes of Kolis guarded the passes of the Ajanta range under their own Naiks, while others attached themselves to the Bhils; but the majority have long settled down to peaceful callings, and the land-holding Kolis deny all affinity with those of the hills. In the village establishment the Koli is most generally associated with the occupation of a water-carrier, and the Kunbi drinks water from his hands. He is known by his chumli, or twisted cloth which he wears on his head in order to rest the waterpot; but he is often a good farmer, or is engaged as a musician, handicraftsman, weaver, palanquin-bearer, fisher, labourer, etc. The Ahir Kolis are frequently employed as watchmen while others work ferries, grow melons in the beds of rivers, etc. They use meat, bury their dead, worship Khandoba, Bhairoba, and Bhavani; and employ Brahmans for religious ceremonies, but have also priests of their own. Some of the Kolis are prosperous village headmen, but the greater number are in ordinary circumstances. All of them are fond of charms and amulets; and the women have a pleasing expression of features, and have generally large families.

Kahar-Bhaoid-Taru

The Kahars and Bhois are fishermen, palanquin-bearers, cultivators, labourers, ferrymen, or melon growers, carriers of grain on donkeys, etc. The Kahars, like the Kolis, are employed as water-carriers. They are rather good-looking, work very hard allow remarriage, and worship Maruti as their kulaswami. The Bhois are either Maratha or Telugu, but the two divisions do not intermarry and they spend their leisure time, when away from their fields or from other occupations, in catching fish by net. The Turus are employed as cultivators. Labourers, kallabattu weavers, tarkassis, and ferrymen. They are best known for carrying travellers across rivers in flood, and as fishermen. They burn or bury their dead.

Gurav

The Guravs are found throughout the district, and officiate in Saiva temples. They are labourers, cultivators, and hold lands attached to temples or are employed in private service, as tarkassi weavers, retail sellers, etc.; but the majority are worshippers at temples, or are beggars. Guravs are in two divisions, Maratha and Ahir; and have their own council to settle disputes. They blow the temple shing or horn and shankh or shell, beat the sanai or drum, and are the musicians at the weddings of Kunbis and some other castes. They also supply bel leaves for worship, and platters of leaves to eat upon, to the Brahman, Vaishya and Kunbi followers of Mahadev; and receive in return presents of grain.

Bhat-Thakur

The Bhats are either Pardeshis or Marathas. They are heralds, historians, genealogists; and ministrels; and their calling is considered sacred. The Bhat is present on all State and domestic ceremonies; especially at marriages; and no important person can enter, go out, or rise, without suitable proclamation. Some of the Bhats hold lands; others are beggars, labourers, and cultivators, and a few have taken to trade. The village Bhats or Thakurs are in different classes.

The Brahman Bhat or gramjoshi officiates at Kunbi weddings, and at those of the higher castes, and reads the panchang once a fortnight. The village Bhat, or Thakur is also a cultivator, labourer, or takes to private service; but the majority of the Bhats are beggars.

Burud

The Buruds are Hindus and live within villages. They make the common bamboo baskets called tokra, the ordinary sieve for winnowing grain called sup, together with cradles, screens, mats, cages, etc. They have no headman, are very hard-working and do not cat with the Mahar and Mang. Buruds are either Shaivas or Vaishnavas.

Kaikadi

The Kaikadis belong properly to the aborigines; but one section known as the Hindu Kaikadi lives within the village walls, and its members work baskets and mats from the leaves of the wild date (shipidi). The Hindu Kaikadis also use the stalks of the kapas or cotton plant. the ambadi or hemp, and the turatta or pulse, in making baskets and wicker-work cages for storing grain. They are in two clans. Jadu and Gaikwad, who eat together and intermarry. Marriages take place early and the ceremonies are very simple, consisting of some turmeric or haldi which is rubbed on the bride and bridegroom, and then the knot is tied and a feast is given to friends and relations. Brahmans are not present, but are sometimes consulted. The Hindu Kaikadis are allowed to approach the village idols, and worship Maruti, Bhavani and Khandoba. They have no headman, but a council to settle all social disputes, speak Marathi and Hindi, and either burn or bury their dead. A class of Kaikadis travel about during the cold season and hot weather; and the members perform as jugglers, snake-charmers and musicians, wandering from place to place with their goods carried on the backs of donkeys, and pitching their little reed huts, outside the village precincts. The men are very black, and have a scanty waistcloth and a turban; but the well-to-do use a coarse jacket, dhoti, and turban. The women are generally common, have brass bangle ornaments on their wrists, and wear their sadis tied in the Telugu style. Both sexes are very untidy, and eat the wild pig, fox, jackal, etc. They worship a legendary saint Manai in times of cholera, and make offerings to Muhammedan shrines. The Kunchialas are another branch of the Kaikadis, who live in jungles, and like the Pardhis and wild tribes, snare game, sell jungle produce, and manufacture grass fans, screens, and ropes. The Kunchialas with the Kaikadis in general, pay adoration to Vishnu and Shiva; but their fetishism is more pronounced and they have their sacred stones and trees and lonely spots in the jungles, believed to be the resort of demons and spirits. All the Kaikadis speak a mixture of Tamil, Telugu and Kanarese.

Dhor

The Dhors are in three divisions Maratha, Ahir, and Pardeshi, who neither eat nor intermarry with one another. As regards occupation, they are in two distinct classes, the first being leather dyers, and the second tanners, or makers of water bags, such as mots, pakhals, mashaks, etc. Dhors do a little cobblers� work and repair shoes, and live within the village precincts. They never eat large horned cattle, nor do they partake of animals that die of disease. The Dhors worship Mahadev (Bhau Adam), Ai Bhavani and Khandoba. In their, own houses, they cowdung a particular spot every week, and place flowers, burn incense, and after prostrating themselves partake of some food consisting of wheat cakes covered with rice. The Maratha Dhors bury their dead, but burn women who die in child birth; and in their marriage processions, the bridegroom rides on a bullock. The Ahir Dhors work the leather jars called kuppa or budla, used for ghee or oil. The Pardeshi Dhors are from Bundelkhand, and burn their dead, but bury those who fall victims to smallpox and cholera.

Chambhar-Khatik and others

The Chambhars are in several sub-divisions, such as Maratha, Mang, Katai, and Pardeshi; and a few are Lamanas. The Maratha Chambtars belong to the village establishment, and execute various kinds of rough-work, such as plough gear, headstalls for ponies and horses, and ropes of green hide, but chiefly make sandals sewn with thongs of green leather. The Chambhar was formerly the executioner, and used the sinews of cattle instead of hempen rope. The better classes are cultivators, labourers, or take to private service; and those called Khatiks are butchers. The Khatiks of Aurangabad neither eat nor intermarry with Chambhars, and their chief occupation is tanning and dyeing leather. Maratha Chambhars have their panch to settle disputes, worship Manai, and have their own priests called Chambhar Mats or Thakurs; but they also pay reverence to Brahmans, and ,worship Kali or Durga. The marriage ceremonies are performed in the morning by the Bhat who beats the drum and repeats some verses; but the auspicious day and hour is fixed by the Brahman or Joshi. After the knot is tied, the bride and bridegroom walk seven times round a post of the salai (boswellia serrata), surrounded with earthen pots placed in the centre of the marriage shed. The Maratha Chambhars burn or bury their dead, and allow widows to remarry. The Katais makes shoes and sandals, and labour in the fields, but are mostly fancy workers, and are found in Aurangabad, Jalna, Paitan, and the principal towns of the district. The slippers they make of silver and gold thread are very neat and tasteful, and many of the shoes are pretty embroidered with soft Floss silk executed by the women. The Katais will not eat or marry with the Maratha or Hindustani Chambhars. They worship Mata or Sitala, the goddess of small-pox and Mari Ai or Mari-Amma the Goddess of cholera. At Aurangabad, they marry when under age, proceeding on foot to the shrine of the Goddess Sitala, which they circurnambulate five times. They speak Hindi, and burn their dead. The Pardeshi Chambhars called Kullar Bundela Chambhars, are from Bundelkhand, and are found in the principal towns. They work slippers of different patterns, and make the shoe called chadhav. The Pardeshi Chambhars eat meat, and burn their dead. The Mochis belong to the Chulkler caste of, Southern India. They are short, dark, of slender frame, and their lower limbs are very slight. Mochis are in greatest number in the cantonments of Jalna and Aurangabad, where they make boots, shoes, slippers, harness, and leather-work of all kinds.

Mahar

The Adahars are sub-divided into the following sub-divisions:- Somas, Andh or Andhvan, Ladvan, Bankar, Wad, Bewne, Tirwan or Tilvan, Gopal etc. who generally eat and marry among themselves. The Somas are the most numerous, and intermarry with the Wad, but not with the Ladwan, although the later eat with the Somas. The Andhas are considered superior to the ordinary Mahars, and are found in greatest number in the Ambad tahsil, where they, are cultivators and labourers. The Bankars weave coarse cloths. Their women spin cotton in a closed room kept lightly watered, and turn, out the finest threads that are used for the highest class of muslins. The Gopals are Mahar devotees of a shrine at Domigirhan near Kaigaon on the Godavari. They are itinerant beggars and dancers, wear a string of sheep�s wool round their neck, and beg for flour, uncooked food etc. There are besides, a few Gurmaks or Jangam Mahars from Pandharpur, who wear a necklace of the root of the Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), and are for the most part employed as servants. Mahars are indispensable, and hold a very respectable position in the village establishment. The Mahar knows the holding of every cultivator. He is the watchman of the village and crops, procures lodging, firewood and forage for travellers staying in the village, acts as guide to the next village, etc. For these services, the Mahar is one of the vatandar or hereditary occupant of rent-freelands, which he can cultivate if he pleases and receives in addition, a certain proportion of grain at harvest, and presents of clothes, etc., at marriages etc. The ordinary food of Mahars is simple, consisting of jawari cakes, curry, curds, etc. At their caste dinners, which are given at birth, betrothals, marriages and deaths, they use meat. Besides being village servants, Mahars are employed as cultivators, labourers, cattle grazers, weavers, thread-spinners, bricklayers, carthirers, and are beggars, or work as private servants. The Mahars adopt Hindu prejudices as they rise in the world; but are very poor as class, and live in little thatched hovels called jhopdas, containing a bedstead or two, some earthen pots, a wooden or metal ladle, a curry stone slab and roller, a hand-mill, a large knife, one or two bundles of ragged clothes, and fuel for daily consumption. Mahars have temples of their own containing stones daubed with kunku or red powder as emblematic of Hanuman, Devi, Ai Bliavani, etc. They worship the other Hindu deities, such as Vithoba, Khandoba, Bliairoba, etc; besides snakes, departed spirits, and the gram-devala, consisting of piles of black and red stones under great trees, or solitary rocks in lonely places on village lands. They keep Maisi or Mhasoba in their houses as a domestic god; and at stated times, make a stand of dough, on which they place a small earthen lamp; with some ghee and a lighted cotton wick, and having placed some jawari cakes before the stand, fall down and worship it, and then partake of the cakes. The well-to-do Mahars get their children married early; but the majority of the boys and girls are allowed to grow up till the parents can afford the marriage expenses. The betrothal takes place one or two years earlier, when presents of cloths, etc. are exchanged, and a caste dinner is given to the village Mahars. On the morning of the wedding day, the girl�s relations are brought by the boy�s father to the Kuladevata ceremony which takes place in the boy�s house. The marriages are always celebrated in the evening and the rites are performed by the Bhat or Gosain; but Brahmans are consulted as to the lucky day and hour. The ceremonies commence by bathing the boy and girl, and then rubbing them with haldi or turmeric paste, after which the boy is taken on horse-back to Maruti�s temple where he meets the girl�s relations. They all worship together, exchange presents, and proceed to the girl�s house, where a parda or screen is put up at the chauk or place where the wedding rites are performed, hiding the girl from the boy. The usual prayers are repeated as among the Hindus, with the exception that the priest is the Bhat or Gosain; but the Brahman, although not present in the house, is at some distance, and when the auspicious moment arrives, claps his hands, and the parda is dropped. The bride and bridegroom make an offering of some til seeds on the sacred fire, and presents are given to the Bhat. A string called kankan, rubbed with haldi, is tied to the bride and bridegroom�s right wrists, together with a piece of turmeric; and the pair goes to worship at Hanuman�s temple. The ceremonies extend over four days, during which time feasts are given and exchange of presents made; and on the last day the bride and bridegroom proceed in procession on horse-back to the bridegroom�s house. If the bride is under age, a feast is given after eight days, called gondhal, in propitiation of Devi; and the bride returns to her parents with whom she remains until she attains puberty only visiting her father-in-law on festival days. Ordinarily, however, the gondhal takes place on the day on which the bride accompanies the bridegroom on horse back. When a person is dying, alms are distributed as among the Hindus; and after death, the bands are placed over the breast, and the thumb and big toes are tied. The Mahars burn or bury their dead with the clothes on; and in case interment is adopted, a potful of water is brought from the river and poured over the body, which is then placed in the ground and covered with earth. On the third day the head and moustaches of the chief mourner are shaved; and food is offered over the grave to the departed spirit, and is then thrown into a river. Some shave on the same day that the dead is interred, while others shave after ten days. The mourning lasts from three to ten days, and ends with a feast. Widow marriages are allowed by the pat ceremony.

Mang

The Mangs are found throughout the district, and are employed as watchmen, labourers, cultivators, cattle-grazers, carpenters, dancers, musicians, beggars or in private service. They are sub-divided into the Maratha, Hollar, Garodi, Bidar, and Dakalwar Mangs, of whom the Marathas are the most common. The Chambhar Mangs are leather workers, and are employed as guides, watchmen, messengers. The Hollar Mangs or Parvaris are travelling musicians, and play on a double drum, sambal; a small and long flute or trumpet, sanai and sarai; the dafra or tambourine, and occasionally the shing or horn. They also work as labourers, messengers, go about begging, and are present at the weddings of the poorer classes, after fashion of Guravs, who attend at the marriages of Brahmans and well-to-do Hindus. The Garodi are called phirasti or wanderers, and are found in small numbers. They go about as dancers, beat the dhol, and practice conjuring trick and sleights of hand. The Dakhan Mangs make brooms, baskets, mats, etc., from the wild date, and are horse-keepers, sell firewood, etc. Some of the Garodi known as Pendi Mangs are athletes. The village Mang is a watchman, guide, and sweeper; and obtains some small privileges, presents etc., and his share of grain at harvest. Mangs are very poor as a class, live outside the village, eat meat. They have their caste feasts, and marry in their own got. The well-to-do -marry under age; and the rites, etc., are the same as for Mahars, except that the priests is a Mang Thakur, Bhat or Gosain. They worship all the local deities, and the ghosts of deceased relatives, and they wear round their neck a silver or copper figure of such a relative called Mangir, which is worshipped at full moon, Divali and Dasara. Mangs are much given to fetish worship, and make sacrifices of fowls, etc. to groups of stones supposed to be memorials of Devi or Bhavani. In their houses they worship a cake placed on the ground surmounted by five stones and a lamp. Feasts are given as among the Mahars at births, betrothals, marriages, and deaths, and any omission is punishable by exclusion from caste. Persons thus thrown out can be taken back again, by giving a caste dinner. The headman is called jagla.

Banjara

The Banjaras are found in all the tahsils of the district. and are either Charan, Lamana, Mathura, Lad or Bushara. They trace their descent from the Brahman and Rajput races of upper India, and Appear to have come originally with the Moghal armies that were sent for the subjugation of the Dakhan in the early part of the seventeenth century. Their tanda organization was derived from the long wars that followed, and they were unsurpassed as carriers of grain for large armies. They penetrated everywhere at the proper season, and removed all that could be exported; but since roads and railways have been opening up the country, their occupation as grain carriers has been gradually passing away. They still graze and sell cattle, and move about with pack bullocks, bringing wheat, etc. from Malwa to the Dakhan, and going to the coast for salt; but many have settled down as cultivators, labourers, carpenters, barbers, mill-stone cutters or are employed in private service, drive carts. spin ganni bags and sell retail articles. There are several Banjara patels,in the district, and the Banjara cultivator makes a very good agriculturist. Some villages are almost entirely peopled by Banjaras, who can hardly be distinguished from the Maratha Kunbis. The settled Banjaras eat but do not intermarry with the Kunbis., and the women are setting their picturesque petticoat, scarf, and ornaments of ivory, cowrie shells, etc. for the more sober dress of the Kunbi females. Their food consists of jowari, bajari, wheat, etc. and the Charans and Lads also use meat. Some of the sub-divisions eat together, but do not intermarry. The Banjara men are called gohar, and have great skill in driving cattle. They are well-made as a body, and are bold, hardy. patient and honest. The husbandmen live in flat-roofed houses built of mud; and the chiefs of tandas have substantial brick, houses; while the poorer carriers move about with their grass huts, which they set up outside the villages. The gohars stain their clothes with the juice of the apta (bauhinia racemosa), which gives a tinge of reddish brown and wear a similar stained or white turban tied across with a piece of red cloth, a dhoti, and sometimes a tunic with a red scarf over the shoulders. The naiks and well-to-do wear bracelets, armlets, ear-rings, finger-rings, and a silver belt around their waist called karthoda. The Banjaras are fond of hunting the wild hog and other animals, and carry a sharp spear-head with them, which they can affix to a bamboo or driving-pole. The women use a petticoat or petia, an open-backed choli with long or short sleeves called kanteri and a dupatta or odhani. The petticoat which is in ample folds, is made of coarse cotton print of red or some other bright colour, fastened to a blue waistband. The dupatta or odhani is of similar material and texture, but of different colours, and is fixed at one end to the waist, and thrown carelessly over the head and shoulders. The women, except those who have been widowed, draw the odhani over a head ornament made of cloth or wood, which looks like a high comb; and the angle at which this head ornament is worn, is said to indicate the rank of the wearer. The hair is rarely braided or tied behind, but is parted in the centre, combed back, plaited or left down in ringlets, and fastened with silk or cotton tassels and silver or pewter ornaments. The women also wear massive silver ear-rings, a large gold or gilt nose ring, tiers of brass and ivory bracelets extending from the wrist high up the arm or to the sleeves of the bodice, brass anklets jingling with bells, brass and deer-horn ornaments and a profusion of gaudy coloured tassels. They are as active as the men in their business avocations, and when travelling, carry children. provisions, utensils, etc. The poorest women sell grass and fuel, but the others work at home and look after the dairy. They are good at needle-work, make their own jackets and petticoats, and often embroider and dye their clothes to suit their peculiar tastes. The Banjaras profess to be Hindus, and worship Balaji, Khandoba, Mari �Ai�, Tulaja Devi, Shiva, etc.

They observe Hindu feasts especially those in honour of Krishna, such as Gokulashtami. During the carnival of Holi, the women dress themselves in their best, and go about singing gaily in a dialect which most of them do not appear to understand. The men dance and sing, and are sometimes joined by the females. The Banjaras are very superstitious, and believe in jadu or witchcraft. The sorceress who is pointed out by a bhagat or devotee when possessed by Mari-Ai, is put to death, and the family to which she belongs pays a heavy fine. The Banjaras employ Brahmans at marriages, etc. and have no priests of their own, but consult bhagats such as Gosains, Bairagis, and Mangbhaus. They have their own naik or headman, who is assisted by some of the adult members, and settles disputes, directs movements of the tanda, etc. The ceremonies at births, betrothals, marriages, and deaths do not differ much from those of the Hindus, and are equally expensive. Child-birth on a march is a quiet affair and the infant receives its name as soon as the party meets with a Brahman, who is paid a fee to perform the necessary ceremonies; but in settled places, a feast must be given to, the tanda, according to the circumstances of the parents; and on the 5th day, the mother worships Satwi, the goddess of children. The Charans however do not worship Satwi. Formerly infanticide was common, but the practice has been to a great extent suppressed. As a rule, marriage takes place after the girl arrives at maturity; and among the north Indian Banjaras, the females and males remain unmarried till they are 20 and 30 years of age. The Dakhan Banjaras marry their children much earlier, and those who can afford it, seldom wait longer than from 12 to 15 years; but among Lads, girls must be married before they arrive at womanhood. The application for marriage comes from the boy's father, and the betrothal (mangni) is witnessed by the caste committee and is followed by a feast. For want of means, the marriage is often postponed for years; but it may take place a month after betrothal, and the ceremonies which are celebrated at midnight, differ little from those at Hindu weddings, the bridegroom pays a dower of about 200 rupees for a young girl. On the day fixed by the Brahmans, two pyramids of earthen pots are constructed, ten or twelve feet apart; a bundle of firewood is laid behind each pyramid, and two wooden pestles are planted perpendicularly between them. The bride and bridegroom sit on the ground between the pyramids, and the feastings and presents of cloths, etc. have their run of four days. The couple are bathed on the 5th day, and the bridegroom leads the bride to his tent. The next morning the bride grinds corn near the feet of her husband's parents. If the bride be under age, she returns after two or three days to her father's house, and remains there till she arrives at puberty. No woman leaves the family into which she has entered. The Charans marry widows to the nearest male relatives of the deceased, but without any ceremony beyond presenting a new cloth, and selecting a fortunate hour to conduct the bride home. The Lads adopt the gandharva form; while the Mathuras and Lamanas do not allow widow marriage. The Banjaras burn the married and bury the unmarried. The Charans claim to be Rajputs and are in four sub-divisions, Povar, Chauhan, Rathod, and Jadu, who eat together and intermarry, but not in the same clan. They wear the long-pointed Hindustani shoes called chadhavas; and are a strong well-made race with a complexion lighter than that of the Maratha Kunbis. The Charans are the most numerous of the Banjaras, especially the Rathod tribe, whose chief naik is in Berar.

Lamana

The Lamanas and the Mathuras are from north India, are fairer than the Charans, and claim to be Hindus and Kshatrias by caste. They wear the sacred thread, do not partake of animal food nor eat with any other tribe, and keep a fire burning when they take their meals. The Lamana females are distinguished from the Charan females by using the sadi instead of the lenga or petticoat; while the Mathura women use a blue sadi. The Lads speak and dress in the Maratha style, and have their headman in Balaghat, south-east of Ahmednagar. They have a tradition that they came from the south, but this is improbable. The Lads are not so fair as the north Indian Banjaras, and have some peculiar customs, such as the vadhi davat ceremony at marriage, and the warrior procession after Holi. There are a few Dharis who are Muhammedans and are the bhats or bards of the Banjaras. There is yet another class called Dhalias who are Ranjara Mangs;

Bhil

The Bhils are most numerous in the Vaijapur, Kannad, Ambad, and Gangapur tahsils. To the south-west, they are succeeded by the Kolis, and in some places the two are intermingled. They have several clans, such as Povar, Mali, Gaikwad, Shinde, Thakur, Ahir, etc. and those found in the district, belong mainly to the Nirdhi tribe. The bhils may be further sub-divided into the Bhils of the plains, and the forest tribes. Many of the Bhils are employed in villages near the hills as watchmen, and have a portion of the village lands assigned to them, and certain dues in grain paid at harvest.

The cultivating Bhils are settled in hamlets, and are labourers to agriculturists, or have taken to cultivation themselves. A few are carpenters, beggars, etc. The forest tribes are in very small numbers, and subsist by the chase and forest produce. Bhils in general are of small stature, and are of active habits, but some are tall and well made. They are not steady at work, and are ignorant, fitful, careless and extravagant, though simple, faithful and honest. They have no separate language, but speak a corrupt form of Hindustani, Marathi, and Rangdi or a mixture of these with Hindi and Gujarati words. Although in manners and appearance they are tolerably distinct from the surrounding population, the Bhils of the plains are gradually assimilating with the general majority of the Hindus. The men have a lungi or waistcloth, a turban and a jacket; and the women wear a sadi with or without a choli.

The ornaments are hereditary possessions, consisting of brass or silver rings, anklets, bells, etc. The settled Bhils live in thatched huts, and sometimes possess cattle, or at least a cow or buffalo, a few fowls, a fishing net, and perhaps a sword, dagger, or matchlock; but fire arms are only used by the headmen. The weapon with which they are very expert, is the kumpta or bow made of bamboo, and about 5 feet long. The string, chulla, is either a thin strip from the elastic bark of the bamboo, or is prepared from the sinews of wild animals. The Bhils have always a large stock of barbed arrows a yard long, and each quiver contains about sixty of them. In shooting with the bow, they bring the arrow with the fore and middle fingers of the right hand to the string, and draw it to the shoulder. The women are kind, hardworking, and use the sling with skill. They are shy of strangers; and have great influence over the men but do not accompany them on their predatory expeditions. The cultivating Bhils raise coarse grain, and a few vegetables, such as gourds, which with meat from the chase, or fish from the neighbouring stream, are rudely dressed for food. Very often, they dispose of grain, and sell firewood, honey, gums, jungle fruits, etc. for cash, in order to buy clothes or implements. They collect and sell mahua flowers, but some understand the art of distilling. The Bhils have caste dinners at which they eat jowar or bajra bread, curry, curds, vegetables, fish and meat. They partake of food on plates, of pewter or bell-metal, and four or five eat out of the same dish. The cultivating Bhils do not eat the flesh of the cow, horse, or carnivorous animals, nor do they partake of the flesh of animals that have died of disease.

The men are fond of dancing and are joined by their females. They sing and play on a violin called chikara or pai, have a kind of instrument made out of a hollow bottle gourd with a reed inserted at the end, and use the dhol or drum, the dafra or tambourine, and the tur or kettle drum. The Bhils reverence Mahadev whom they believe to be their ancestor; and hold certain groves and parts of the forest sacred to him in which they offer sacrifices. They also sacrifice in other places to local deities, such as, Devi and Bhavani; attend the festivals Hindu temples of sanctity, and make offerings to Brahman.The tiger-god Vaghdev, has no image, and is worshippedin the head man's house at the beginning of the rainy season. The Bhils do not possess any temples of their own, but raise a-platform round some old tree-which they worship. They make pilgrimages to Nasik, Banaras, etc., but their chief place of pilgrimage is Hanmant Naik's Vadi, a few miles south of Sangamner, on the way to Pune. They reverence-horse and dog, and make mud horses in praying to Muhammedan saints or to Khandoba. Their chief festivals are the Holi and Dasara, and at the latter they make sacrifices to Durga. The Bhils are firm believers in witchcraft, and employ Baras to point out the sorceress (dakin). The Baras are either Brahmans or Hindus such as dhobis, barbers, etc. and are employed as doctors, but diseases, beyond their skill are attributed to the influence of witches. When the Bhils meditate a plunder, they usually consult the Baras before starting. The birth, marriage, and other ceremonies of the Bhils of the plains resemble those of the higher class of Hindus. The mother and child are bathed on the 5th day after child birth, some yellow lines are drawn on a raised platform prepared outside the house, and a lamp is arranged in the centre of five quartz pebbles. A cocoanut shell is placed close by, and the whole is worshipped after being sprinkled with haldi, jowar, pinjar or red powder. In the evening, a feast is given to the caste; and on- the 12th day the mother worships jaldevata or Satvai, and another feast is given.

The Bhils do not, marry in the same clan, nor in the same lineage on the father's side; the better classes giving their girls about the time of puberty. And the boys between 15 and 20 years of age. As among Hindus, the proposal comes from the boy's relations, and the marriage may take place a month after betrothal; but it depends on the pecuniary circumstances of the parents, and may be postponed for years. A Brahman is consulted to fix the betrothal day, and the boy and his relations proceed to the girl's house, give presents, and are entertained in the evening. The betrothal is witnessed by the caste committee, and the party leave next morning. When the marriage is decided on, a dowry called hunda is presented to the girl's father, and a feast is given. The Bhat is consulted to fix the wedding day, and When this has been settled, the haldi ceremony is performed, booths are erected, and a platform is raised at the girl's house. The boy, goes in procession on horseback to Hanuman's temple, wearing the Hindu head ornament called bashing, and his sister accompanies him with a pot of water containing a few copper coins. Intimation of the boy's arrival at the temple is sent to the girl's house, and after worshipping, the party drinks the water that has been brought by the boy's sister. At sunset they all proceed to the bride�s house and are received by a number of women, each holding a pot of water waves a lighted lamp in front of the bridegroom faces the east, a parda, is set up concealing the bride, and a thread is twined round the bride and bridgeroom.

The brahman repeat some verses and grain is thrown, and at the auspicious moment, the priest claps his hands, when the thread is severed, the parda, is dropped, and the pair cast portions of the broken thread and garlands on each other. Congratulations are received; pan supari, haldi,and kunku are distributed; yellow strings and turmeric are tied to the wrists of the day the couple is bathed, and the boy�s mother and relations come in procession to the bride's house, give presents, and are entertained at two dinners. After two or three days, the bride's relations go in procession to the house of the bridegroom's father, return presents are made, and a dinner is given. With this the festivities terminate, and the yellow thread on the neck and wrist of the bride and bride groom are removed, and all trace of haldi washed away. Widows are allowed to remarry. No ceremonies are required but the suitor presents a sadi, choli, bead necklace, etc., to the woman, and entertains friends and relations at a dinner. The Bhils of the district bury their dead, and the funeral obsequies commence with the usual distribution of alms, after which the body is taken outside, and is washed and dressed in new clothes with a turban on the head, but the face is left exposed. In this manner the corpse is arranged on the bier, some cooked food is placed by side, and the whole is sprinkled with gulal. At the burial ground, a portion of the food is put into the mouth, and water is thrown over the body which is interred with head to the south. The party bathe in thc,neigbouring river or tank, and on returning to the house, the bearers are-fumigated with nim leaves thrown into fire. On the 3rd day some further ceremonies are performed for the bearers, and they receive a dinner. On the 10th day the chief mourner shaves his head,and offers cakes to the departed spirit. On the 12th day a Kumbhar is called, and the seven-step ladder ceremony is performed while the priest chants the purans, and then a feast is given which terminates the funeral rites.

The Bhils have a naik or headmadman over every ten or twelve villages, and a panch to settle disputes. The naik, or jamadar again has a deputy called pradhan. The forest Bhils are small, but hardy and active. They are very fond of mahua spirits which they drink freely to keep off malaria; and eat jungle fruits, roots, and animals except the cow, horse and monkey. They cultivate some coarse grains in the jungles, and remove their huts when sickness appears, or when the soil becomes exhausted. The huts are not grouped together as in villages, but family settles in its own reclaimed spot; and in places where wild animals abound. Bhils build a sleeping stage. (machan) raised about 9 feet above the level of the ground, The Bhils wear very little clothes, but have some decent apparel in which to attend fairs, markets, and the festivals celebrated at certain temples where they make sacrifices. The marriages are arranged by the pradhan and caste committee, and a feast is all that is necessary, without any ceremonies, etc. The women are prolific, but few children survive the malaria and hard life. The forest Bhils bury their dead, and worship the spirits of their ancestors, raising a rude pile of stones, which at certain times they smear with red lead and oil. The gods worshipped are the same as those followed by the Bhils of the plains and include Vaghdev. Mata, Mahadev, Bhairoba, Khandoba, Kanhoba, Ai Bhavani, Sitla, etc., but there is a great deal more of fetishism, and spirit and demon-worship.

Gond

The Gonds are found in the Gangapur tahsil. They eat flesh, speak Marathi, and worship Mahadev, Bhavani, Dhan-Thakur, Gopal, etc. In their marriage processions the bridegroom rides on a bullock.

Bedar

The Bedars are nearly all in the Aurangabad tahsil, and are employed in government or private service. They are tall robust well-made, eat meat, bury their dead, and belong to the country about Sholapur. They talk Kannada among themselves; and in the early half of the present century, furnished most of the turbulent Pendharis who molested the Dakhan.

Reddi

The Reddis are Telugu cultivators who migrated to Maharashtra. They use animal food but do not drink spirituous liquor.

Ramoshi

There are a few Ramoshis in the district, employed as watchmen and labourers. They are a dark Telugu race, and were formerly of predatory habits.

Telangi

The Telangis are employed as cultivators, cart-hirers, tailors, potters, weavers, toddy-sellers, barbers, and in government service. There are also some Arvis from the Tamil country of southern India employed in Government service.

In addition to the Banjara, Kaikadi, and the unsettled races that have been already alluded to, the wandering tribes include the Pardhi, Kolhati, Dombari, Takari, Pathrud, Wadar, and Gollar. Then there are travelling dancers and beggars, who are generally Hindus, such as Gondhali, Bharadi, Pangul, Vasudev and Bahurupi.

Pardhi

Pardhis are found in most of the large villages, especially in the JaIna and Gangapur tahsils, and belong to the Bhaura race of northern India. Many of the Pardhis of the district, known as Gujarati or Maratha Pardhis, are employed as watchmen, or have settled down as cultivators and labourers, fretting mill-stones, etc. The members of another section called Phase Pardhi or Haran Pardhi are hunters, and are expert at snaring game. They wander about in bands of three or four families, and use snares made of catgut or finely twisted hair, fastened to the ground by means of wooden pegs; but stronger material is employed for deer, wild pig, and large game. In snaring partridges, etc. the Pardhis imitate the call of the male bird; while quails are kept in cages with nooses near them; and bustard, crane, deer, wild pig etc. are driven towards the trap. Some of the Phase Pardhis make mill-stones; others are fishermen, and all are believed to possess secrets for charms, and sell herbs, roots, medicines, etc. The Phase Pardhis generally live in wretched hovels, are very poor, and ragged, and go about as beggars. Their worldly goods consist of a few asses, a goat or buffalo, and some tattered blankets, baskets, bamboo sticks, mats, snares, nets, etc. They do not employ Brahmans.

Kolhati

The Kolhatis are included among the predatory tribes that entered the Dakhan with the Muhammedan armies of invasion; and some of the tribes had certain rights of collection of grain, and other perquisites from village communities, which were granted to them by Aurangzeb. The Kolhatis speak Gujarati, and are in two sub-divisions, the Dukar and Kam or Pal Kolhati. The former derive their name from hunting the wild hog; are a non-wandering race employed as labourers, and rear the domesticated pig. The men arm themselves with spears, and go out hunting on foot, accompanied by a pack of trained dogs; and the cultivators send great distances for a gang of dukars, to rid the village lands of wild pigs. The Dukars also use snares and nets in catching hares, etc. and a few have taken to shooting. All the Kolhatis eat the wild cat, mongoose, wild and domestic pig, jackal etc., but not the cow. They do not believe in Hindu gods nor observe Hindu festivals, but have demon and snake worship, and in case of great family trouble or affliction, they level down and smooth a square piece of ground, on which incense is burnt, and prayers are offered. They invoke the spirits of deceased relatives, and make sacrifices offering a boar to the spirit of a male, and a cow to that of a female. Their marriage ceremonies are performed by elders, but no auspicious day is sought, and a simple feast is sufficient, at which the bride and bridegroom are present, seated side by side, dressed in new clothes.

The females are married at any age, and the wives are chaste; but the best-looking girls are chosen for dancers and performers, accompanying itinerant bodies of athletes, jugglers, and actors called Nats. These latter females are married to some god, generally to Khandoba of Jejuri. The men, and especially the athletes, sometimes do not marry till middle age, when they take to wife one of the women who has been devoted to the gods and become somewhat old. Dowry is paid at marriage. The acrobat Kolhatis wander about to towns and villages, and are expert at legerdemain. They dance on tight ropes, and some of their feats with the bamboo are exceeding curios and display great strength. They live in portable huts made of reed grass which can be rolled up and carried on asses, bullocks, or ponies; and have peculiar and secret ceremonies, to which they attribute their success as performers and their protection in their dangerous feats. The girls are often handsome, possess good clothes and jewels, and perform many wonderful tricks.

The people of any caste or race may join the Kolhatis. On the other hand, nearly all the professional girls are votaries of Muhammedan saints, worship Narayan, Hanuman, Khandoba, and Mari, and possess Hindu as well as Muhammedan names. When a girl desires to take to dancing, the parents obtain the permission of the panch, and a dinner is given to the tribe. The Dukar and Kam Kolhatis have a number of minor sub-divisions, and longing to its own sub-division. Children that die in infancy are buried, but all others are burned, and the charred bones are temperarily interred in some convenient place, and some rice and oil are placed at the head of the grave. When the family can afford it, the bones are exhumed, and carried in two saddle bags in procession on a donkey, and then placed under a canopy that has been prepared for its reception. The friends and relations are feasted for three days, and the saddle bags with the bones are replaced on the donkey, and carried to the cemetery of the sub-division, with drums beating, and the professional girls of the tribe dancing in front. The grave is circular, and the spot is marked with a stone, covered with red pigment and oil. The widows are allowed to marry. The Kam Kolhatis make a few combs, shuttles of boned, and small buffalo horn pulleys which are used with ropes in fastening loads on parts.

Dombaris

The Dombaris are a cognate race of wandering tribes who remain outside the village, and are workers in iron and brass, or are rude entertainers in music and in a kind of dramatic performance.

Takari

The Takaris are a caste of travelling stone masons who manufacture handmills and dress stones. They are a short dark race, are generally poor, worship Satwai whose image is suspended from their necks, and dwell within the villages walls in huts made of fine grass. They marry at all ages, do not eat beef, and bury their dead.

Pathrud

The pathruds are mill-stone makers, and shape and stones that are quarried by Wadars. All three, Takari, Pathrud, and Wadar, are wandering tribes from the Telugu country, eat together and intermarry.

Wadar

There are two sections of Wadars one of which works in stone, and the other in earth. The stone Wadars are considered of higher grade; and the men are very black, of good size and strength, and more regular featured than the earth Wadars, The latter are slightly made. Some of the Wadars are cultivators and labourers, make and repair roads and tanks, sell charcoal and chunam, and prepare brushes for weavers. On the whole, the Wadars are very industrious and earn good wages, but are also extravagant. They are employed by the cultivators to destroy field rats, which they catch in large numbers besides digging out quantities of grain found in the burrows. Wadars consult Brahmans, worship Hindu deities, have a headman to each encampment, bury their dead with head placed to the west and eat almost everything except the flesh of the cow. They have social rites at betrothal, and in the marriage ceremony, the bride and bridegroom walk three times round a stake placed in the ground. Widows and divorced persons are allowed to remarry. The dwellings of the Wadars consist of reed mats stretched over poles, which with the few household goods, are rolled up and carried on donkeys from place to place.

Gollar

The Gollars move about with droves of asses, or are employed as goat herds. They rear dogs, hunt jackals, iguanas, and wild animals, and live in the neighbourhood of towns and villages.

Gondhali and Bharadi

The Gondhalis and Bharadis are Hindu beggars who wander about dressed in long garments, and have cowrie chains suspended from their necks. They chant songs in praise of Devi, Amba Bai, Saptashringa, etc. and dance at Hindu weddings with a lighted torch in their hands.

Pangul

Some of them are settled down as cultivators. The Panguls, traverse the streets in the early morning, singing out the names of Hindu gods, especially of Pandharpur Vithoba, with whom they associate the name of Tukaram.

Vasudev

The Vasudevs are beggars dressed in long robes and have the head adorned with-peacocks' feathers; but a few are employed as labourers.

Bahurupi

The Bahurupis are itinerant jesters and mimics.

Vajantri and Joshi

The Vajantris are tom-tom beaters; and the Joshis are astrologers and beggars.

Kanphatta

The Kanphattas or Nathpanthis wear large ear-rings of ivory, rhinoceros horn, or agate; and the ears of boys are slit for this purpose, when they are ten years of age. The Kanphattas are cleanly shaven; and the lay members eat with Kunbis, allow remarriage, bury their dead, and mourn for seven days. The founders of the sect were Dharamnath and his son Gharibnath; and the headquarters is at Danodhar, on the edge of the Rann of Kachchh. The religious members have a monastery here, and feed and shelter all who demand their charity, without distinction of creed or caste, and without limit of sojourn or quantity of food supplied. The establishment is well endowed; and the members are few in number, lead secluded lives, and are strict in celibacy. The pir or superior is invested with his authority by the Rav of Kachchh, and his earrings are of gold set in precious stones. The caste use, the brick coloured clothes peculiar to devotees.

Vaidulok

The Vaiduloks or Vaimanduls are from Telangana, and are Vaishnava beggars by caste, but are properly travelling physicians, and carry medicines in a bag thrown over their shoulders, or in baskets slung from a bamboo pole, like the Kasi Kapdi. Their headquarters is at Narayanpeth, near Hyderabad. They travel about collecting medicinal herbs and their principal beat is among the hills north and south of the Berar valley. The Vaiduloks bury their dead with head placed towards the north, sacrifice sheep in worshipping Bhavani, and offer flowers and cocoanuts to Mahadev and Khandoba. They marry one wife, and at stated periods of the year, assemble at the village of Mitwata near Aurangabad, where the priest from Hyderabad arranges the marriages of the sect.

Kabir Panthi

The Kabir Panthis are all in the Aurangabad tahsils and are labourers and beggars.

Sikh

The Sikhs are empolyed in Government or private service, but a few are labourers, cultivators; cotton beaters, itinerant knife-grinders, makers of scabbards of swords, etc. The Nanakshahis are religious mendicants, and so are the Udasis, Rarndasis and Nirmalas. The Akalis occasionally pass through the district on their way to the tomb of Guru Govind at Nanded. They dress in blue, and wear a high conical turban of the same colour, encircled with a number of chakis or sharp discs of steel; and carry a sword, shield bow of the ancient Parthian fashion, a brace of horse pistols, and a collection of daggers. The Sikhs have no caste distinction, but have certain sub-divisions, one of which is called Suth, and another corresponds to the Rajput Bais. They commonly worship Rainchandra, and venerate the names of Nanak -Sahib and Guru Govind. Some of the Sikhs are priests, but the majority are soldiers, and all are armed to the teeth. Their marriages are similar to those of the Rajputs; and the Barse ceremony is performed on the 5th day after the birth of the infant. Remarriagr is allowed. The Sikhs do not partake of meat sold in the bazar, but kill the animal themselves, and even then, if the head be not severed at a single blow with the sword they reject the body.