Maratha history
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Hill forts
Arjun Sengupta, February 20, 2023: The Indian Express
For a long time in history, before air power took centre stage in military tactics and strategy, forts were crucial to the defence of any country. They acted as a force multiplier for the defender and a safe refuge for civilians, often the first casualties of war.
Nowhere is this more apparent than in the Maratha countryside – forts of all sizes and shapes dot the landscape. In their heyday, control of these forts translated into control of the territory. Chhatrapati Shiva ji Maharaj, at the time of his death, is said to have control of over 200 forts across his territories, with some estimates putting the number over 300.
In many ways, the Marathas took fort-building to its zenith, not only building forts capable of surviving long sieges and battles but putting special attention to their placement and locations. Grant Duff, a soldier of the East India Company and the first comprehensive historian of the Marathas, wrote: “There is probably no stronger country in the world than the Deccan from the military defence point of view.”
But just why were forts so important for the consolidation of the Maratha empire, and what was so unique about these forts? We explain.
The terrain of the Maratha country
Unlike the plains of Northern India, suited to conventional battle with large standing armies, the terrain of the Maratha country was different. With the Arabian Sea on one side, the Konkan plains in the centre and the Western Ghats overlooking the plains, in the 17th century much of the region was covered in thick jungles.
Warfare in such terrain is qualitatively different, with large conventional armies prone to getting bogged down. Thus, as Shiva ji began to consolidate and expand his influence in the region, his strategies evolved to be significantly different from the common military doctrine of the time. Crucial to his military strategy were hill forts.
A native of hill forts
Historian Gunakar Muley called Shiva ji “a fort-native”.
The Maratha icon was born and raised in the hill fort of Shivneri (around 100 km from Pune), given to his grandfather by the Sultan of Ahmadnagar in lieu of his services as a military commander. Shivneri is a typical hill fort found in the Western Ghats – a small but strong fortification, atop a hill overlooking the surrounding terrain. It had a permanent source of water inside in the form of two freshwater springs and according to some accounts (to be taken with a pinch of salt), the fort was well-stocked to feed its residents for seven years.
In ‘Sivaji and the Rise of the Mahrattas’ by Richard Temple, M.G. Ranade, G.S. Sardesai, R.M Netham and James Douglas, Shivneri is described as the following: “You will see what a rugged precipitous place this is and what a fitting spot it was for a hero to be born!”
Thus, growing up in the hills and valleys around Pune, Shiva ji understood the salience of hill forts in controlling the land. Over his storied life, he captured multiple such forts, including Torna (when he was only 16), Rajgadh, Sinhagadh and Purandar.
Shiva ji’s famous guerilla tactics
Shiva ji’s armed forces had some major limitations. First, he did not have the man or horsepower compared to most of his enemies, especially during the early stages of his life. Second, he was heavily reliant on obtaining supplies such as muskets and gunpowder from the Europeans, mainly the Portuguese. This meant that in conventional battle, he would have seldom stood a chance against his foes.
Thus, Shiva ji adopted guerilla tactics: his men would travel in small, highly mobile and heavily armed attachments, wreak havoc in the often sluggish Mughal or Adil Shahi armies, loot supplies and treasure, and quickly retreat.
Crucial to such plans were hill forts. Marathas forces would strike quickly and retreat to the many hill forts of the region. These forts were designed such that the approach to them was tricky, often treacherous, to large groups of men. Consequently, these were perfect defensive positions where either the bigger armies would not bother to attack or would have to sacrifice their strength in numbers if they did choose to attack.
Hill forts also were constructed such that they were perfect vantage points to keep a lookout for any threat. “There should not be a higher point near the fort amongst the surrounding hills,” wrote Ramchandra Pant Amatya, Shiva ji’s finance minister. Often, if there were higher points nearby, smaller forts would be constructed there. This can be seen in the case of the Purandar fort, which is flanked by the smaller Vajragad fort.
Creating an empire with the help of hill forts
What hill forts effectively allowed Shiva ji to do was project his power, beyond what would have been possible through conventional means. The relative safety of his forts allowed him to successfully carry his lightning tactics while fighting formidable enemies.
As his territories grew, these forts became all the more important, as local strongholds and seats of local administration. From forts nestled atop great heights, he could govern the land around. They also became symbols that projected his power and presence.
The Maratha Empire emerged from humble beginnings. While a variety of factors, concerning both the Marathas and their rivals, contributed to their rise, the significance of hill forts cannot be overlooked.
Maratha rulers and Mughal monuments
March 19, 2025: The Indian Express
During the Maratha Confederacy from 1674 to 1818, there existed a more nuanced relationship with Mughal monuments. The Marathas, while asserting their own political and cultural identity, also maintained a respectful engagement with these structures. Historical records mention Chhatrapati Shahu I, the fifth ruler of the Maratha Empire and Shiva ji’s grandson, visiting Aurangzeb’s tomb to pay his respects.
Aurangzeb, the sixth Mughal emperor, passed away on March 3, 1707, at the age of 88 in Ahmednagar, present-day Maharashtra. His death marked the conclusion of his 49-year reign, with the last 25 years dominated by fierce battles against the Marathas, led by Shiva ji.
Despite the constant warfare, Aurangzeb developed a deep spiritual connection with a region called Rauza, located just 26 km from modern-day Aurangabad. Known for its large number of Sufi saints, it was in this area that Aurangzeb sought solace during his turbulent reign.
In his will, Aurangzeb explicitly expressed his desire to be buried near the shrine of Sufi Zaynuddin Shirazi. Though he passed away in Ahmednagar, his body was transported to Khuldabad, located 136 km away, and laid to rest in accordance with his wishes. While the place was originally called Rauza, it was later renamed Khuldabad, meaning “heavenly abode”, as a tribute to Aurangzeb, who was posthumously referred to as “Khuld Makaan” or “the one whose abode is heaven/eternity”.
Aurangzeb’s tomb remains modest. He himself is documented to have funded his final resting place with just Rs 14 and 12 annas — the amount he earned by knitting caps during his last years. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) describes the tomb as follows, “The existing gateway and domed porch were added in 1760 AD. The floor is of marble, a neat railing of perforated marble is on three sides, and the wall of the dargah forms the fourth side. It was erected by the Nizam of Hyderabad. Only a patch of earth with a small sabza plant remains on top, and it is roofed only by the vault of the sky.”
Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 marked a turning point in Indian history, paving the way for the Marathas to emerge as the dominant political force in the subcontinent. Despite the long-standing animosity beween the Marathas and the Mughals — especially with Aurangzeb executing Sambhaji Maharaj, the father of Shahu I — his tomb was largely left undisturbed.
Historical records suggest that Shahu I, upon his release following Aurangzeb’s death, visited the tomb of the Mughal emperor. Shahu, who was imprisoned by the Mughals at the age of seven and spent 18 years in their courts, had every reason to harbour resentment towards Aurangzeb, particularly after his father’s execution in 1689.
Shahu’s visit is mentioned in V G Khobrekar’s Maratha Kalkhand, a history of the Maratha state published by the Maharashtra government: “In just a few days, Shahu Raje became beloved by the people. Love and admiration from the public poured in from all sides. After the monsoon season ended, Shahu Raje reached Ahmednagar. He stayed there until October, preparing for battle against Tarabai. Initially, he considered making Ahmednagar his capital. However, since the city was under Mughal control and Shahu was determined not to antagonise the Mughals, he abandoned the idea of taking it under his rule. From there, he visited the nearby city of Khuldabad and paid his respects at Aurangzeb’s tomb.”
The visit is discussed in Richard Eaton’s A Social History of the Deccan, which offers a broader context to his power struggle with Tarabai, wife of Rajaram I. Eaton writes, “She pointed to his 18 years spent in the Mughal camp, his fluency in Persian, his refined courtly manner — all suggesting that culturally the Maratha prince had ‘gone Mughal’ and therefore was not to be trusted. She drew particular attention to Shahu’s contention, in her view treasonous, that his claims to kingship had been approved by the new Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah — as though the Mughals had the right to name the successors to Shiva ji’s throne! In fact, that August, Shahu seemed to confirm Tarabai’s charges when he made a pilgrimage to Aurangzeb’s tomb by foot…”
While most Mughal monuments, including Aurangzeb’s tomb, were largely left undisturbed — even thrived — under the Maratha rule, there were occasional incidents of plunder during the Maratha rule. These incidents highlight that while the Marathas generally preserved many Mughal structures, they did not hesitate to plunder certain tombs and royal buildings during times of military conflict. The most well-known of this is the attack on the Red Fort in 1761, just before the Third Battle of Panipat. The Marathas, during one of their expeditions to Delhi, looted the Diwan-i-Khas, where Mughal emperors received courtiers and state guests.
A Maharashtra historian says, “Despite the long-standing animosity between the Marathas and the Mughals, many leaders of the Maratha Confederacy adopted a measured approach when it came to targeting religious sites. Numerous Mughal architectural sites and mosques within Maratha-controlled territories were well-preserved. The Maratha policy was pragmatic and balanced, a stark contrast to the approach of present-day rulers.”
The writer is an Associate Editor
